thesis statement about german shepherds

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• Published: 15 October 2020

Different conformations of the German shepherd dog breed affect its posture and movement

• A. Humphries 1 ,
• A. F. Shaheen 1 , 2 &
• C. B. Gómez Álvarez 1 , 2 , 3  

Scientific Reports volume  10 , Article number:  16924 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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• Animal physiology
• Biomechanics

The conformation of the German shepherd dog (GSD) varies considerably within the breed. These differences may result in large variation in the movement and limb loading and undesirable consequences to their musculoskeletal health. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between conformation and biomechanical measures in 60 GSDs. Full body kinematic and kinetic measures were computed from 3D motion capture and pressure data. The dogs were divided into groups based on their back slope and curvature. Correlation analysis and statistical differences between groups showed that GSDs with a greater back slope have a greater contact area in their forelimbs and place them closer together when standing (n = 60). During trot, the dogs with sloped back showed a greater vertical force in the forelimbs and a greater mid-thoracic flexion (n = 60). Unilateral differences were found in the stifle flexion, hock flexion and hock adduction, suggesting greater movement asymmetry with an increase in the back slope (n = 30). In conclusion, several biomechanical parameters are affected by the GSD’s slope of the back and not by its curvature. Further studies are required to determine whether the variation in movement, posture and conformation within the breed relates to an increased susceptibility to musculoskeletal disorders.

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Introduction.

Conformation varies enormously between dog breeds, even between large breeds of similar weight 1 , 2 . The different conformations are described in specific breed standards 2 , 3 , however, they tend to evolve with time. Currently, there are notable differences in the conformation of the purebred German shepherd dog (GSD), which is commonly observed as variation in the incline and curvature of the back and in the angulation of the hindlimbs. The modern purebred GSD is a breed that first started as a herding dog, and later as a working dog used by the police and the armed forces. Nowadays, there are two distinct types based on the dog’s activity; a working GSD and a showing GSD.

Despite little variation in the breed standard across the world, there are considerable differences in its interpretation by judges, breeders and dog’s owners; resulting in large variation in the breed, in particular their conformation, which can be categorised by the slope and curvature of the topline 2 . The current breed standard of the United Kingdom for the GSD 3 states that “the topline (back) runs without any visible break from the set on of the neck … falling away slightly in a straight line to the gently sloping croup”. It is further stated that the croup should be “slightly sloping and without any break in the topline (and) merges imperceptibly with the set on of the tail”; where a flat or excessively inclined croup is undesirable 3 . The British breed standard of the GSD hindlimbs states that “Angulations (should be) corresponding approximately with front angulation, without over-angulation”, the standards further emphasise that over-angulation of the hindlimbs are undesirable 3 . However, despite this standard, a GSD is considered to have a favourable topline by many judges with an incline that progressively increases towards the croup, as this seems to be based on people’s perception of aesthetics of the breed rather than function and health. This perception has led to a profound change in the conformation of the breed over the last century, with the back profile evolving from relatively straight, rectangular conformation to a curved (Germanic type) and sloped conformation (British type) 4 . The various interpretations of the breed standard have led to a wide variety of conformations of GSD, with some conformations being perceived as having health related side effects and leading to unhealthy hindlimb mechanics in gait. For example, the Crufts 2016 show was hit with controversy and a media outcry when a GSD with a ‘sloping back’ won best in breed but appeared to be struggling to walk 5 . However, there is limited understanding of whether the evolution of conformation in the breed does indeed have significant effects on movement and if this relates to any clinical presentations.

Some studies have used kinematic and kinetic analysis of walk, trot and square standing to describe the gait and posture of specific canine breeds, such as the Labrador 6 , 7 , 8 , Doberman 9 and Greyhound 6 , but not the GSD. When comparing the kinematics and kinetics of different breeds and between dogs of the same breed, it is important to consider if differences are due to variations in the way the dogs move or due to variation in body mass and size. After normalising kinetic parameters for size and body mass, Bertram et al. 6 concluded that the movement and limb loading of the Labrador and Greyhound were dynamically similar during trot.

Other studies which measure the kinetics in dogs have used a pressure walkway 10 , 11 , 12 , force plates 8 , 13 or weighing scales 14 to record parameters such as limb loading, peak vertical forces, paw pressures and temporospatial (time and distance) parameters. This has shown that in normal stance, dogs support 60% of their weight on the forelimbs when standing square, although this value will change depending on the head and neck position 15 . The vertical forces and weight distribution during walk are also similar between breeds when normalised to the weight of the dog 10 .

Very few biomechanical studies have investigated the GSD. In a study with 10 healthy GSDs and 10 GSDs with hip dysplasia, GSDs with dysplastic hips were shown to have a greater angle of flexion at the hip and a greater rotational velocity of the hip when trotting 16 and a lower peak vertical force compared to normal dogs 12 , 13 . These findings clearly indicate that the degree of hip dysplasia is related to the weight bearing and lameness in the GSD. Fischer and Lilje 2 analysed the stride parameters and the angles of the joints in the sagittal plane in 10 working and 14 showing GSDs. They showed that the limb’s forward and backward range of motion during the stride was bigger in the show lines compared to the working lines, and that the show lines had a shorter femur and lower leg. This is probably the only attempt in the current literature to analyse the two breed lines with gait quantification methods, however the statistical significance of their findings was not reported. The kinetics and 3D kinematics of healthy GSDs across a range of conformations and types have not yet been fully investigated, hence it is not known if differences in conformation within the breed affects movement and standing posture and if this relates in any way to the risk of musculoskeletal disorders in this breed.

The present study aimed to quantitatively describe standing posture and trot of 60 healthy GSDs by analysing the kinematics and kinetics. The relationship between the kinematic and kinetic parameters and conformational measures of the back curvature and slope was investigated to determine if the conformation is likely to affect the standing posture and movement in the healthy GSD.

Materials and methods

Sixty healthy, lameness-free, purebred GSDs of both sexes, any age from 6 months old, and any conformation type were recruited. All dogs had been previously hip scored and were eligible to participate if their hips were structurally sound [denoted by a hip score (HS) which was less than the mean for the breed (HS ≤ 16 from BVA/KC hip score statistics)]  ( S2 ). Owners were sent a questionnaire to complete prior to the study, the questionnaire included information on their dog’s clinical history, activity levels, training, fitness and health. A copy of the questionnaire is included in the supplementary material S1 .

Ethics statement

All the methods have been approved by the institutional Ethical Committee from the University of Surrey’s (NASPA ethics committee). All protocols carried out in these animals were in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations of this committee and the institution, and all owners gave written consent to participate in the study.

Dogs attended a single session in the Biomechanics Laboratory at the School of Veterinary Medicine in the University of Surrey. Dogs that showed any signs of anxiety or aggression (ASPCA SAFER behavioural assessment), were considered unfit to participate or were lame (following a general examination and visual gait assessment, respectively) were excluded from the study. Dogs were allowed some time to familiarise themselves with the biomechanics lab prior to data collection. This was followed by measurements of conformation and fitness. The conformation measures were as follows: the slope of the back calculated as the slope of the line connecting the withers and mid-sacrum to the horizontal and the length of the back (withers to mid-sacrum). To obtain these measures, a height measurement stick was used to measure the positions of the wither and mid-sacrum when the dogs were standing square and a tape measure was used to measure the length of the back. Indicators of the dog’s fitness were also recorded, these were: the body weight, muscle tone of the thighs (i.e. quadriceps muscles) and upper forelimb (triceps muscle) using a semi-objective scale based on palpation: (1) hypotonic, (2) normal tonicity and (3) hypertonic, body condition score (scale 1–9), mid-thigh circumference using a measuring tape calibrated for the handler’s pulling strength (GULICK II TAPE MEASURE MODEL 67020) and fat thickness using a fat calliper at the mid-lumbar region ( S2 ). All measurements were obtained by the same observer 17 .

Reflective markers were attached to the dog’s skin using hypoallergenic double-sided tape; markers were placed at anatomical landmarks and clusters of reflective markers were attached to the middle of each segment, as shown in Fig.  1 and listed in the supplementary material ( S3 ). A motion capture system consisting of eight infrared cameras (QUALISYS, Gothenburg) tracked the motion of the reflective markers in 3D space. This was synchronised with two video cameras and a two and a half metre high resolution pressure walkway (TEKSCAN, Biosense Medical, Chelmsford) which was used to measure the load distribution of each paw.

Illustration of reflective marker positions attached at bony landmarks and cluster locations on the left side and back ( A ). Markers were also attached at the same locations to the right limbs. Standing data collected while a GSD stood square on the pressure walkway for 10 s ( B ).

Kinematic and kinetic data were recorded while dogs stood square on the pressure walkway for 10 s; the paws were positioned so they were directly below the hip joint or humeral head (Fig.  1 B). This was repeated three times and followed by three measurements while the dog stood in a stacking posture where their paws were positioned the same as during square standing, except their rear left limb was manually retracted until their lower hindlimb was vertical (Fig.  2 , right). The stacking position is adopted in dog shows and some dogs (show dogs) were more comfortable adopting this position than square standing.

Diagram of the two standing postures studied: square (left) and stacking posture (right).

Dogs trotted over the pressure walkway at a comfortable, self-selected speed for twelve valid trot stride cycles; recordings were rejected if dogs were not looking ahead, tripped or changed speed. The tracked reflective markers were assigned for each dog to create a 3D model of the dogs and these were used to compute kinematic parameters in standing and trot.

The centre of each cluster on the back was used to calculate the radius of curvature of the back in the thoracic (R T ) and lumbar (R L ) regions 18 as shown in Fig.  3 . Thus, dogs with a more arched back profile would have a smaller radius of curvature.

Illustration of the calculation of the radius of curvature of the thoracic (R T ) and lumbar (R L ) regions of the back using the location of the markers along the back (Sacr: sacrum, L5: lumbar 5, L1: lumbar 1, T8: thoracic 8, Wit: withers). Expressed in metres (m).

Marker positions were also used to describe the angulation of joints (flexion/extension, abduction/adduction and internal/external rotation) and limb positioning. The flexion/extension and abduction/adduction angles of each joint were calculated from the anatomical marker positions in the sagittal and transverse planes and axial rotation was quantified in VISUAL3D (C-MOTION, USA) using the clusters placed on the limbs and Euler sequence ZXY.

The protraction/retraction angles of the forelimb and hindlimb were also calculated for each limb, using the position of the metacarpal/metatarsal anatomical markers and the acromion/greater trochanter markers respectively. The data were filtered using a second order low pass Butterworth filter (with 6 Hz cut-off frequency) to minimise the errors associated with marker movement.

The markers placed at anatomical landmarks were also used to quantify the height of each segment above the ground (measured from the proximal end) and the segment length. Parameters were normalised to the dog’s height measured at the withers.

Trot stride cycles were split using the time of initial contact of the left forelimb recorded from the pressure mat. The maximum and minimum joint rotations and the range of motion for each joint were measured in four valid stride cycles for each dog and joint angles were plotted against cycle time.

Limb loadings, peak pressures, contact areas and weight distribution were quantified from kinetic data during standing and trotting; the loading of the digital pads and metacarpal/ metatarsal pads were also quantified for each limb to describe intra-paw variation. Data were normalised to body mass recorded from the pressure mat to ensure parameters were not affected by the weight of the dog. The stride length was normalised to the height at the withers to ensure that the size of the dog did not affect the findings.

Statistical approach

Means of the kinematic and kinetic parameters were computed for each dog and used to calculate the intra and inter-subject standard deviations. All data recorded was tested for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test and the slope and radius of curvature of the back were tested for independence using the Chi-squared test (see S2 ). As both parameters used to describe the back profile were independent ( p  = 0.371), the back slope and the curvature of the back were used to investigate relationship between the back profile and kinematic and kinetic parameters using linear and non-linear regression analysis, where appropriate.

The back slope and thoracic radius of curvature (R T ) were also used to assign each dog to a theoretical conformation group (levelled back: < 3°, intermediate back: 3°–6°, sloped back: > 6°) and curvature group (arched back profile: R T  < 1 m, straight back profile: R T  > 1 m) (Fig.  4 ). Chi-square tests were used to test differences in the groups in nominal variables: sex, percentage in agility and participation in shows, posthoc tests with Bonferroni correction was used when differences were found. For continuous variables, Kruskal–Wallis tests with Dunn’s posthoc analysis ( p values adjusted for multiple comparisons) were used to check for differences between the groups. To avoid type 1 errors, biomechanical measures were only considered to be affected by conformational measures if (both) significant Pearson’s correlations with the conformational measure (back slope or curvature) and differences between the conformational groups were found. Finally, Freidman tests were used to test for differences between standing positions (square and stacked).

*Modified from Fischer and Lilje 2 and Winfrow 4 .

Schematic illustration of the GSD back profiles: straight and arched curvatures; and: levelled, intermediate and sloped inclinations.

A total of 60 (31 females) GSDs were recruited in the study with a mean age of 4 years and 2 months (SD: 2 year and 3 months), mean body mass of 39.8 kg (SD: 7.5 kg) and a mean combined hip score of 8.1 (SD: 3.8). Back inclinations ranged from 0° to 10.34° (mean: 5.0°, SD: 2.7°) and the mean radius of curvature of the thoracic region of the back was 2.26 m (SD: 4.00 m). When categorised by slope, 18 dogs were in the levelled back group, 21 in the intermediate and 21 in the sloped back group. When categorised by curvature of the back, 29 dogs were in the arched back profile group and 31 in the straight back profile group. In total, 38% of the GSDs were trained in agility and 42% of dogs had participated in breed shows; in particular, most GSDs in the sloped back group (68%) participated in dog shows, whereas 17% of GSDs in the levelled back group participated in dog shows ( p  = 0.006). The height of the sacrum was significantly higher in the levelled group than in the intermediate ( p  = 0.012) and sloped ( p  < 0.001) groups. Dogs with levelled backs had a greater thoracic radius of curvature compared to dogs in the sloped back group ( p  = 0.017).

In keeping with the statistical approach, kinetic and kinematic parameters related to conformational measures are only reported here if they were found to be significantly correlated to the conformational measure (back slope or curvature) and differences between conformational groups were also found. The results showed that a number of kinetic and kinematic parameters were related to the back slope (detailed below) but none were shown to be affected by the curvature. The full results of the statistical tests are shown in supplemental material ( S2 – S7 ).

It was not always possible to acquire full 3D kinematics of the 60 dogs because of obstructions to the marker trajectory by the owner on one side of the dog; this was particularly the case for forelimb joints kinematics in trot. In addition, the quality of data were compromised in some occasions due to the dogs’ fur. As a result, all the figures depicting kinematic results have been limited to high-quality data obtained from 30 dogs.

Standing posture

In standing, the main kinetic parameter affected by the slope of the back was the contact area of the forelimbs which was correlated with the slope of the back during both standing positions (square: correlation coefficient (r) = left 0.37, right 0.44, p  < 0.01; stacked: r = left 0.44, right 0.45, p  < 0.001); GSDs in the sloped back group had a greater contact area than dogs in the levelled back group (square: right p  < 0.001 left p  = 0.006, Stacked: right and left p  = 0.002). Additionally, in the stacked position, the percentage of weight bearing on the forelimbs was correlated with the slope of the back and inversely correlated in the hindlimbs (r = 0.33, p  = 0.010).

In the hindlimb, the angle of retraction was correlated with the slope of the back during square standing (right: r = 0.51 and left 0.56, p  < 0.001). Dogs with a levelled back had a mean retraction angle of 6.10° (SD: 2.19°) in the left and 4.68° (SD: 2.96°) in the right hindlimb and dogs with a sloped back had a greater retraction angle of 10.71° (SD: 5.26°) in the left ( p  = 0.003) and 10.45° (SD: 6.12°) in the right hindlimb ( p  = 0.002). The abduction/adduction of the left and right hindlimb joints were not found to be (consistently) affected by the slope of the back.

The forelimbs were positioned closer together during both standing positions in dogs with a greater slope of the back (expressed as a percentage of wither’s height) (square: r = 0.58, p  < 0.001; stacked: r = 0.60, p  < 0.001). When comparing groups in square standing, GSDs in the levelled back group positioned their forelimbs with a distance of 40.2% (SD: 3.8%) of the wither’s height, whereas GSDs in the sloped back group positioned their forelimbs closer, at a distance of 34.0% (SD: 4.1%) of the wither’s height ( p  < 0.001). The flexion of the thoraco-lumbar joint was also found to be affected by the back slope in the two standing positions, where a greater thoraco-lumbar flexion was found is dogs with a greater back slope (square: r = 0.043, p  = 0.001; stacked: r = 0.34, p  = 0.007).

There was no difference in the limb loadings between both standing positions and these were symmetrical between the left and right. However, there were differences in the loading of the metatarsal and digital pads in each paw. In the stacked position, dogs carried a greater percentage of their body mass unretracted hindlimb, the weight was transferred towards the metatarsal pad and away from the digital pads when standing in the stacked position (11.5%, SD: 4.3%) compared to the loading in the digital pads when standing square (15.6%, SD: 2.5%) ( p  < 0.001) (Fig.  5 ). Furthermore, the load in the forelimbs was supported more by the digital pads during square standing compared to the stacked position (right p  < 0.001, left p  = 0.005) (Fig.  5 and S4 ).

Vertical force supported by the limbs, digital pads, metacarpal/metatarsal pads of each limb when standing square and in the stacked position expressed as a percentage of body weight (BW), showing the mean and standard deviation for the 60 GSDs. Significant differences are indicated using *For p  < 0.05, **for p  < 0.01, **for p  < 0.001.

Comparing the postural kinematics of the two standing positions, the GSD retracted their left hindlimb with a mean retraction angle of 22.81° (SD: 4.36°) and protracted their right hindlimb (− 4.04°, SD: 5.71°), whereas during square standing the left hindlimb was retracted by 8.55° (SD: 4.25°) and the right hindlimb by 8.30° (SD: 5.07°). To stand in the stacked position, GSDs extended their left hip ( p  = 0.001) and increased the flexion of the left stifle ( p  = 0.035) while retracting the left hindlimb. The flexion of the hock in the retracted limb did not change compared to standing square, but in the opposite hindlimb the hock joint became more flexed ( p  = 0.005) (Fig.  6 ).

The flexion angle of the hindlimb joints when the GSD stands square and in the stacking position with the left hindlimb retracted, showing the mean and standard variation for the 60 GSDs. Significant differences are indicated using *For p  < 0.05, **for p  < 0.01, **For p  < 0.001.

In trot, the swing phase duration of the hindlimbs were correlated with the slope of the back (right r = 0.34, p  = 0.007; left r = 0.27, p  = 0.034), where dogs in the sloped back group had longer swing times and shorter stance times (58:42) than dogs in the levelled back group (56:44); interestingly, this difference did not lead to a change in speed.

The forelimbs of dogs with a greater back slope had greater vertical force during trot (right r = 0.58, left r = 0.55, p  < 0.001). GSDs in the sloped back group had a mean vertical force in the forelimbs of 128.6% of the body weight (SD: 17.6%), which was greater than in the levelled back group with a mean of 106.9% of the body weight (SD: 11.6%), ( p  < 0.001). Loading of the digital pads was greater in both forelimbs (right p  = 0.001, left p  = 0.022) and both hindlimbs (right and left p  < 0.001) in GSDs with a more sloped back, but the loading of the metacarpal and metatarsal pads were not consistently affected by the slope of the back ( S6 ).

Results from the kinematic data showed that the mid-thoracic region was more flexed in dogs with a more sloped back (r = 0.38, p  = 0.003). GSDs in the sloped back group had a mean flexion angle of 7.9° (SD: 3.4°), which was greater than the levelled back group with a mean of 3.6° (SD: 2.4°). The flexion angles of the other regions of the back were similar for all GSDs ( S7 ), these can be seen in Fig.  7 .

Flexion (positive) and extension (negative) angles of the back segments, mean of 30 GSDs (solid line) and showing one standard deviation from the mean (dashed lines). Graphs are plotted for one stride cycle, showing initial contact (IC), Mid Stance (MS) and Toe Off (TO) for the left (right hind stance/left hind swing) and right diagonals (left hind stance/right hind swing). Between brackets: marker names (Supplementary material 3, S3 ).

The flexion of the right stifle in trot was correlated with the slope of the back (r = 0.36, p  = 0.005). GSDs in the sloped back group had a mean flexion angle of 94.1° (SD: 7.9°) which was greater than the levelled back group (mean: 85.0°, SD: 5.6°) ( p  = 0.012). The left hock remained more flexed throughout the trot stride cycle in dogs with a greater back slope (r = 0.31, p  = 0.017), where dogs in the sloped back group had a mean minimum flexion angle of 38.6° (SD: 7.0°) which was greater than the levelled back group (mean: 33.7°, SD: 3.8°) ( p  = 0.028). The flexion/ extension angles of the other joints were not affected by the slope of the back (Figs.  8 , 9 , and S7 ).

Flexion (positive) and extension (negative) angles for the hindlimb joints, mean of 30 GSDs (solid line) and showing one standard deviation from the mean (dashed lines). Graphs are plotted for one stride cycle, showing initial contact (IC), Mid Stance (MS) and Toe Off (TO) for the left and right diagonals. Between brackets: marker names (Supplementary material 3, S3 ).

Flexion (positive) and extension (negative) angles for the forelimb joints, mean of 30 GSDs (solid line) and showing one standard deviation from the mean (dashed lines). Graphs are plotted for one stride cycle, showing initial contact (IC), Mid Stance (MS) and Toe Off (TO) for the left and right diagonals. Between brackets: marker names (Supplementary material 3, S3 ).

The right hock was more adducted in GSDs with a greater back slope (r = 0.56, p  = 0.001). The right hock of GSDs in the levelled back group had a greater abduction angle (mean: 21.2°, SD: 11.2°) compared to the sloped back group (mean: 0.5°, SD: 7.3°), ( p  = 0.001). The abduction/adduction angles of the other joints were not affected by the slope of the back (Fig.  10 and S7 ).

Abduction (positive) and adduction (negative) angles for the hindlimb joints, mean of 30 GSDs (solid line) and showing one standard deviation from the mean (dashed lines). Graphs are plotted for one stride cycle, showing initial contact (IC), Mid Stance (MS) and Toe Off (TO) for the left and right diagonals. The three reflective markers tracked and used to compute the joint angle is shown in the brackets. Between brackets: marker names (Supplementary material 3, S3 ).

The internal and external rotation of the joints showed no correlation with the slope of the back. However, the results showed that in all GSDs the hips were internally rotated during the initial swing phase of the limb and during the stance phase, with a mean maximum internal rotation of 63.3° (SD: 22.9°) for the left hip and 67.1° (SD: 16.7°) for the right hip. During the swing phase, the hips were externally rotated, as shown in Fig.  9 . The hocks were shown to be externally rotated throughout the stride cycle, where the mean maximum external rotation for the left hock in all the GSDs was 40.4° (SD: 10.3°) and for the right hock was 39.7° (SD: 9.1°) (Fig.  11 and S7 ).

Internal (positive) and external (negative) rotation for the hindlimb joints, mean of 30 GSDs (solid line) and showing one standard deviation from the mean (dashed lines). Graphs are plotted for one stride cycle, showing initial contact (IC), Mid Stance (MS) and Toe Off (TO) for the left and right diagonals.

The slope of the back had no significant effect on the internal or external rotation of the back during trot. The thoraco-lumbar and lumbo-sacral regions of the back were axially rotated to the right side of the dog (positive) during the late swing phase of the right front limb and left hindlimb, as these limbs are lowered to the ground; whereas, towards the end of stance phase, these axially rotated to the left (negative) (Fig.  12 ). Conversely, the opposite is seen for the withers, as the region is rotated to the left side during late swing and early stance of the left hindlimb, and rotated to the right towards the end of the stance phase (Fig.  12 and S7 ).

Right (positive) and left (negative) rotation for the back segments, mean of 30 GSDs (solid line) and showing one standard deviation from the mean (dashed lines). Graphs are plotted for one stride cycle, showing initial contact (IC), Mid Stance (MS) and Toe Off (TO) for the left and right diagonals.

This study gives detailed quantification of the three-dimensional movement during trot, standing posture and limb loadings of GSDs of a range of conformations; and provides evidence that these are affected by the slope of the back. Each parameter was tested for correlations with measures of conformation including the slope of the back and its curvature. In addition, dogs were categorised into groups according to their back slope and back curvature. The results showed correlations between kinetic and kinematic measures with back slope. Conversely, the curvature did not have an effect on any of the biomechanical measures.

Due to differences in fur, the quality of the kinematic data in the trot trials in some dogs were compromised. Therefore, to ensure the trot kinematic data were reliable and repeatable, a representative sample of the best 30 GSDs data were presented during trot. This did not affect the reliability of the standing kinematic data or in the kinetic data. Besides of problems with the fur, skin displacement alone is reported to affect non-sagittal motion analysis in dogs 19 . Therefore, care must be taken when making conclusions related to mediolateral and transverse plane rotations. Findings showed inconsistencies in the effect of back slope on some kinematic measures between the right and the left, for example, back slope was shown to be correlated with an increase in the right stifle flexion, the left hock flexion and right hock adduction. These results did not reach statistical significance on the contralateral side. To ensure that these results are real, we have visually assessed the synchronised video recordings for confirmation and indeed more GSDs with sloped backs presented an irregular motion pattern of one or both sides when trotting compared with the more levelled back dogs which is likely to be a cause of the inconsistencies found between the two sides.

The increased loading of the forelimbs in dogs with a greater back slope suggests that sloped dogs were leaning forward, thus increasing their forelimb weight bearing. This agrees with the observations by Hollenbeck 20 indicating that GSDs naturally stand with their forelimbs well under the forechest. Other breeds carry approximately 60% of their weight in their forelimbs and 40% in the hindlimbs 2 during normal standing, where this percentage can increase by 10–15% if the dog extends or lowers the head and neck 15 . Furthermore, in data analysed by the researchers on 12 sound Labrador retrievers, it was found that they carry 69% (SD: 5%) of their weight in the forelimbs, which is higher than the sloped back GSDs of the present study in spite of being both similar sized breeds. This means that although GSDs with a sloped back have an increased loading of the forelimbs, the loading distribution is comparable to other breeds and is still less than in a similar large breed. It can be speculated that this can either lead to, or, be due to more well-muscled forelimbs compared to the musculature in the hind quarters of sloped back GSD. Although this study recorded the muscle tone on the forelimbs and hindlimbs and the circumference of the thighs as indirect measures of muscle development and strength of the GSDs, there was no difference between the groups. Although it should be noted that these are semi-quantitative analyses that might not be very precise, hence further conclusions on differences in musculature and its relation to back slope in GSDs cannot be made from this study alone.

In both standing positions, square and stacked, the greater contact area of the forelimbs in dogs with a sloped back was independent of the increased weight bearing. When dogs stood in the stacked position, there was no difference in the loading of the forelimbs and hindlimbs compared to standing square, which means that dogs were able to maintain a symmetrical weight bearing in both standing postures. In order to achieve this during stacking, the dogs extended the hip and flexed the stifle of the retracted limb and loaded the paw mainly through the digital pads; whereas the limb which was not retracted had a more flexed hock to transfer more of the weight onto the metatarsal pad. Although the stacked position seemed more difficult to achieve for a few dogs, particularly those not trained for shows, their limbs were not loaded differently, suggesting no disadvantage or discomfort when standing in either position. Dogs with a more inclined back also positioned their forelimbs significantly closer together during standing, and this was not due to a difference in the widths of the thorax, defined in this study by the distance between the scapulae.

Flexion of the mid-thoracic region of the back was the only spinal region significantly correlated to back slope at trot. In most of the GSDs with straight back profile, the greatest flexion initiated at the thoraco-lumbar and lumbo-sacral regions, whilst dogs with an arched back profile had a curve originating from the thoraco-lumbar region. In an in vitro study by Benninger et al. 21 , the vertebral columns of 9 GSDs was found to have less mobility at L7–S1 than in dogs of other breeds, it was suggested that these findings were related to the detailed anatomy of vertebral facets in this breed. Further in vivo studies would be necessary to compare spinal motion with other breeds, in particular of the caudal spine, as the morphology and morphometry of the lumbosacral region has been assumed to promote lumbosacral disease in the GSD 22 .

The slope of the back was significantly correlated with increased values of several angle rotations of joints of one or the other hindlimb suggesting asymmetry of the hindlimb motion. Bockstahler et al. 23 found that Belgian shepherd dogs (BSDs) with borderline hip dysplasia had a more flexed stifle joint compared to healthy BSDs and Miqueleto et al. 16 reported greater flexion angles in GSDs with hip dysplasia. However, the current study showed no correlation between the back slope and the maximum hip flexion angles. Although it should be noted that dogs in this study were only included if they had hip scores less than the mean of the breed and therefore all dogs in this study were cleared from hip dysplasia. The inclusion criteria served to ensure that dogs included in this study were not subclinically lame. However, it may be argued that such a criterion biases against certain conformations. Anecdotal evidence from dogs recruitment suggests that dogs with more sloped backs were more difficult to recruit. Nevertheless, despite having this criterion dogs included in the study had a large range of back slopes and back curvatures which were the two conformational measures of interest.

During trot, there was a greater adduction angle and greater range of motion (ROM) of one of the hocks in dogs with a sloped back (i.e. ‘cow hock’), which is undesirable in the GSD breed, as it can be considered as broken columns of limb support, however it appears to provide lateral stability 20 . These findings might be linked as compensatory mechanisms to maintain a better balance, however, non-sagittal rotations cannot be directly attributed to biological reasons considering the great latero-medial skin displacement reported in the literature for the hindlimb in dogs 19 . It is still unclear why the GSDs with a more sloped back show more variable right-left sagittal plane movements of the stifles and hocks. The relevance of this findings might be important for the GSD’s musculoskeletal health, or at least, it might explain why some sloped back dogs seem to move more irregularly in the show ring without presenting explicit lameness.

The higher loading of the forelimbs and lower of the hindlimbs of sloped GSDs during trot and stacked standing suggests that this could lend the forelimbs a greater chance to exercise and develop musculature, while the reduced use of the hindlimbs in comparison could be a contributing factor to GSDs being perceived as having weaker hindquarters. Previous studies have found that GSDs with hip dysplasia also have a lower peak vertical force in their hindlimbs compared to normal dogs 12 , 13 , suggesting the reduced vertical force in the hindlimbs during standing and trot may be related to the development of dysplasia of the hip.

During trot, the increased loading of the digital pads in all limbs in sloped GSDs would normally be attributed to differences in speed 6 , however, all dogs moved at a comparable self-selected trot speed. Therefore, most likely, the differences in loading are likely to be related to differences in body conformation 6 . More levelled backed dogs distributed the loading more evenly between digital pads and metacarpal and metatarsal pads, however, neither of these ways of loading the limbs seem to have a clear advantage or disadvantage.

In our study, the slope of the back did not affect the segments’ lengths or the protraction/ retraction angles significantly, which disagrees with the study performed by Fischer and Lilje 2 in 10 working and 14 showing GSDs where they found that limb’s forward and backward range of motion during the stride was bigger in the show lines compared to the working lines, and that the show lines have a shorter femur and lower leg. The authors did not report the back slope of their dogs, which could have been different than in our study. Other anatomical differences may have been present in their dogs since they were recruited in Germany and it is known that morphological differences between the Germanic type and British type exist 4 .

When comparing with other large breeds reported by Fu et al. 24 , the GSD had a more extended hip joint by approximately 20°, more flexed stifle by approximately 20° and a greater maximum flexion angle of the hock of approximately 38° during trot. Conversely, the GSD had comparable flexion and extension angles of the forelimb to other larger breeds 24 , 25 . These differences emphasise how the kinematics can be directly affected by the conformation of each breed.

All dogs internally rotated their hip joints for the majority of the stride cycle, only showing external rotation at the end of the swing phase. However, the hips of other larger breeds were externally rotated throughout the stride cycle, with a mean range of motion of axial rotation from 24° external rotation to 7° external rotation 24 , with the greatest amplitude of external rotation occurring at the end of the swing phase. Furthermore, the hocks were more externally rotated in the GSDs of this study compared to other larger breeds with a mean range of motion of axial rotation from 13° external rotation to 5° external rotation 24 ; the GSDs also had considerably greater inter-subject variation in the hock axial rotation angle. The externally rotated hocks may be a compensating mechanism for the internally rotated hips. It is widely known that GSDs tend to present externally rotated hocks, in which case the metatarsus are externally rotated in relation to the tibia, resulting in the lower limbs rotating outwards, a feature of some dogs presenting the so called ‘cow hocks’. Hollenbeck 20 explains that lack of muscle balance in the hindlimbs in dogs with a spread stance can result in cow hocks. This suggests that maintaining a healthy muscle mass in the hindlimbs can be essential in this breed with tendency to rotate hindlimbs externally.

An extensive range of kinetic and kinematic parameters were analysed in this study. However, parameters were only reported in the results if they were correlated with the slope of the back in addition to showing differences between the back slope groups, as this meant the parameters had a statistically significant and relevant relationship with the slope of the back. This statistical approach ensures that the reported results are truly significant and any possibility of randomness is discarded.

In conclusion, this comprehensive description of limb loading and joint angles of the GSD shows that this breed moves and stands differently compared to other breeds; and when comparing different lines within the breed as a result of variation in conformation, particularly the inclination of the back and not by its curvature or other conformation features. GSDs with sloped back carry more load in their forelimbs during standing and trot, and load their digital pads in all limbs more than the metacarpal and metatarsal pads; they also showed greater right-left differences in their hindlimb movement, particularly in the stifles and hocks. Although there are clear differences in standing posture and movement that are a result of changes in conformation, further research is needed to investigate whether the observed biomechanical changes are also related to the prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders in the GSD.

Data availability

The authors confirm that derived data supporting the findings of this work is available within the manuscript and the supplementary files. Raw data supporting the findings of this work is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

With thanks to The Kennel Club Charitable Trust for funding this research project, to The German Shepherd Dog Breed council of Great Britain for assisting with recruiting participants and to the dog owners and German shepherd dogs for taking part in the study.

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C.B.G.A. and A.F.S. were granted the fund for this research, conceived of the presented idea, designed the study, verified the analytical methods and supervised the findings of this work. A.H. helped adjusting the methods, performed the data captures and analyses, and wrote the first draft. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.

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Humphries, A., Shaheen, A.F. & Gómez Álvarez, C.B. Different conformations of the German shepherd dog breed affect its posture and movement. Sci Rep 10 , 16924 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73550-x

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German Shepherd Dogs in the Military: A Brief Historical Overview

Afola, one of the German Shepherd Dogs with the U.S. Air Force, awaits commands from her handler. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Staff Sgt. Patrick Evenson) To learn how you can support military working dogs deployed in combat zones overseas, visit MWDTSA’s home page .

By Brad Cohick, MWDTSA

Development of German Shepherd Dogs as a Breed and Early Trials

Between 1899 and 1914, the German Shepherd Dog (GSD) was developed by Captain Max von Stephanitz of the German Army to be a working dog. Many years of selective breeding by Stephanitz honed the traits of intelligence, loyalty, dedication, and tenacity needed for military and police applications. Eager to show the prowess of the new breed, Stephanitz loaned these new dogs to German police departments–the first K9 Corps.

During this trial period with German police, these new dogs showed great promise in areas such as obedience, tracking, and protection. Stephanitz believed these dogs could also be useful to the German military. After these early trials with German Police units, Stephanitz sought to have GSDs added to German Military units. The timing could not have been better for Stephanitz and his new German Shepherd Dogs.

German Shepherd Dog (GSD) Photo: PDPics.com

World War I

In 1914, at the beginning of World War I, German Shepherd Dogs began serving with the German Military. They performed a number of tasks on the battlefield and within the ranks of the German Army. These new dogs served as sentries, messengers, and ammunition carriers. They proved themselves especially capable in aiding wounded soldiers on the battlefield. They even led injured and blinded soldiers off the battlefield to safety and medical attention. This latter act by the new breed eventually led to the development of the first seeing eye dog, an important function the GSD still serves today.

While at first amused by the use of dogs on the battlefield, the soldiers on both sides of the conflict were quickly impressed. They saw these new dogs performing numerous heroic acts under stressful and dangerous conditions. In fact, soldiers were so impressed by the dogs’ capabilities that after the conflict, the Germans, as well as the Americans and the English, began to develop their own cadre of German Shepherd Dogs for use in the military. GSDs would prove themselves again in conflict when World War II broke out in 1939.

Photo: publicdomainclip-art.blogspot.com

World War II

During WWII, the Germans again utilized GSDs, and the U.S. began deploying them, as well. U.S. GSDs served mainly as messengers, helping soldiers to communicate on the battlefield. GSDs also acted as guards and search and rescue dogs during the war. In all of these roles, the GSDs performed well. This led to the establishment of many K-9 training camps, where GSDs began training regularly for service in the U.S. Military.

Beginning in August 1942, the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps established dog training centers at Front Royal, VA; Fort Robinson, NE; Cat Island (Gulfport), MS; Camp Rimini (Helena), MT; and San Carlos CA. The K-9 Corps initially accepted thirty-two breeds of dogs for training.

By 1944, however, the military reduced that list to seven: German Shepherds, Doberman Pinschers, Belgian Sheep Dogs, Siberian huskies, farm collies, Eskimo dogs, and Malamutes. Today, GSDs are the only breed still trained by the U.S. Military from that original list. Modern additions include the Belgian Malinois and Labrador Retrievers now being trained and mobilized as Military Working Dogs (MWDs).

Formal training

Training for dogs at these K-9 Camps lasted between 8 and 12 weeks and consisted of “basic training” to get the dogs accustomed to military life. After this initial twelve-week training period, the dogs would go on to a specialized training course in one of four areas: Sentry Dog training; Scout or Patrol Dog training; Messenger Dog training; or Mine Detection Dog training.

After successful completion of the specialized training, the dogs and their handlers would be organized into War Dog Platoons. During the course of World War II, the military deployed fifteen War Dog Platoons to the European and Pacific Theaters of War. Seven served in the European Theater and eight in the Pacific Theater. It has been said that while on patrol in the Pacific Theater with a War Dog Platoon, no units were ever ambushed thanks to the K-9s assigned to those units. Many of the dogs trained and deployed during WWII were German Shepherd Dogs.

The Korean War

After World War II, due to lack of interest and budget issues, the military cancelled and closed most of the War Dog Programs. The 26th Scout Dog Platoon, however, stayed intact to some degree and moved from Front Royal, Virginia to Fort Riley, Kansas in 1948. On December 7th, 1951, the responsibility for dog training was transferred to the Military Police Corps. The 26th Scout Dog Platoon moved again to Fort Carson, Colorado.

The 26th Scout Dog Platoon was the only active War Dog Platoon to serve in the Korean War. It served with honor and distinction in Korea from June 12th, 1951 to June 26th, 1953. Platoon members were awarded a total of three Silver Stars, six Bronze Stars for Valor, and thirty-five Bronze Stars for meritorious service. On February 27th, 1953, the Department of the Army recognized the accomplishments of the platoon in General Order No. 21.

One Dog who proved an outstanding success with the 26th Infantry Scout Dog Platoon in Korea was Scout Dog York (011X). York completed 148 combat patrols, the last one coming the day before the Armistice was signed officially ending the war. On July 1, 1957, the War Dog Training Center was moved from Fort Carson, Colorado to Fort Benning, Georgia¹. ______________ ¹Webpage, 47th Scout Dog Platoon, http://www.47ipsd.us/47k9hist.htm

During the initial phases of the Vietnam War, German Shepherds were used mainly on Air Force installations as sentry dogs. However, as the war escalated, The United States Marine Corps entered into a service agreement with the US Army to have them train German Shepherds as scout dogs. This would be the first time since World War II that the Marines had used scout dogs. Two Marine scout dog platoons were deployed to Vietnam in February 1966.

The Marines kenneled their dogs near Da Nang at Camp Kaiser, named after the first Marine scout dog to be killed in action in Vietnam. The first Army scout dog platoon was deployed to Vietnam when the 25th IPSD arrived at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in June 1966. Between late 1965 and January 1969, twenty-two Army Scout Dog Platoons (including the 47th IPSD) and Four Marine Scout Dog Platoons were deployed to Vietnam². ______________ ²Ibid

Dogs are comrades, not equipment

Over 9,000 handlers and 4,000 dogs served in the Vietnam War. The final disposition of the dogs after the war is a sad and disgraceful episode in our military’s history, however. At the time, the dogs were viewed as equipment by the military, and disposition of the dogs after the war was done in the most economical way. The dogs were given to the reluctant South Vietnamese military if possible for an unknown disposition, and at worst, were euthanized or simply left to fend for themselves. A most despicable and shameful ending for the beautiful and heroic dogs who had served our military personnel so gallantly on the battlefield.

This sad episode led to a large public outcry. In response, the military pledged not to dispose of military working dogs in the same manner. Congress eventually passed a law that allows military dogs to have an honorable retirement. President Clinton signed a bill in November 2000 (H.R. 5314), which amended title 10 of the US Code. This allowed for the adoption of retired military working dogs to former handlers and other qualified civilians.

Now, these life-saving dogs in the military can finally look forward to a comfortable and dignified retirement.

Author’s Note:

According to a former Vietnam MWD Handler here at MWDTSA, GSDs served in Vietnam not only as Scout Dogs but also as Mine & Tunnel dogs. The advent of IHS fever helped the US military decide not to bring home GSDs, since they and most US bred dogs were subject to it. After Vietnam, all dog units except AF were disbanded. Due to the “overbreeding” of American GSDs, the AF began its favoritism toward the Malinois, including a breeding program.

German Shepherd Dogs: 9/11 and Beyond

German Shepherd Dogs have been part of the US Military’s Military Working Dog program since the end of the Vietnam war, through the Cold War years and up to today’s climate of global terrorism and asymmetric threats. According to a recent article in the New York Times , “German Shepherds and Belgian Malinois are the most common breeds of dogs used by military operators, because they have the best overall combination of keen sense of smell, endurance, speed, strength, courage, intelligence, and adaptability to almost any climatic condition.”

Currently, the Army has approximately 600 dog teams, which have seen service in Iraq and Afghanistan³. The courage and loyalty of these dogs have continued to save lives and prevent injuries since creation of the K-9 Corps.

Many of the dogs on these current teams are German Shepherds, and they serve in many roles and perform many duties. Today, we can see German Shepherds performing HALO jumps with Special Operators and inserting from boats with Navy SEAL Teams. These dogs continue to be valued members of our Military and patriotic guardians of our freedom.

German Shepherd Dogs likely will have a place in our military for years to come. They have served with distinction in many theaters and in many conflicts around the world. Should you have the good fortune to meet MWD teams, please thank them for serving our country. ___________________ ³U.S. Army.mil

About MWDTSA

The Military Working Dog Team Support Association is an all-volunteer 501(c)(3) nonprofit serving MWD teams in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, and Coast Guard. With your support, we send quarterly care packages to MWD teams deployed in global combat zones. Additionally, we boost morale with stateside MWD kennel visits. We promote veteran causes and memorials, including recognition of retired MWDs. And we host education events and create content to educate the public about the jobs of MWD teams. To learn more, visit MWDTSA’s home page .

These dogs are awesome and need to be recognized just like a human soldier. When the canine soldier has served his time ; he needs to be able to go back to his original soldier at a very inexpensive price.

I agree with Joyce’s comment that these beautiful military dogs should be given the admiration and respect they deserve and have certainly earned. Unlike human soldiers, they do not have the option of whether they want to serve in the military, and should be given a comfortable and dignified retirement.

I have learnt so much from this publication. These dogs really are like humans and they take instructions seriously better than other humans. They deserve good treatment and also their price should be high indeed.

Significant information should be added to the “Vietnam” section, in part:

* For the US Army, Scout Dog Platoons were generally assigned one platoon (approximately 30 men and dogs) per each brigade in each division.

* Handlers and new dogs coming into Vietnam were sent to the US Army Dog Training Detachment (USARV DTD) at Bien Hoa Air Base where dogs were matched with new handlers. DTD also trained Mine and Tunnel Dogs (now Explosive Detector Dogs) which were assigned to Scout Dog Platoons.

* Handlers and dogs from in-country units needing supplemental training were sent to USARV DTD for refresher training.

* Scout Dogs and Mine and Tunnel Dogs were Infantry.

* Army Sentry Dogs were Military Police.

* In fairness, the Army also had per each division a Combat Tracker Platoon which used, in addition to human trackers, Labrador Retrievers. Some Tracker platoons also used Scout Dogs with tracking teams.

* Combat Tracker Platoons were Infantry units.

* Approximately 250 Scout and Tracker dogs were returned to the US. The remainder were given to the Vietnamese Army or euthanized.

I trained at the US Army Dog Training Detachment, FT Benning, GA, prior to deploying to Vietnam where I initially served as a Combat Tracker Platoon Commander and then as Training Officer, USARV DTD.

Anyone desiring information on how to support our amazing Military Working Dogs should contact the nonprofit 501c3 Military Working Dog Team Support Association, MWDTSA.org

There is a great deal to add, but the above information completes some blanks.

I am doing a research project of gsds from inception until 1914, how many gsds were utilized in WWI?

Ronda, the United States did not have a formal War Dog program until WWII, but the Germans utilized GSDs in WWI. The United States War Dogs Association estimates the Germans had 30,000 dogs on the battlefield in WWI (see: https://www.uswardogs.org/war-dog-history/world-war-1/ ). However, as shown in these photos, they used a variety of breeds — not just GSDs: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ZbW4TggCEk . One blogger writes, “In the First World War alone, 48,000 (GSDs) were enlisted in the German army” (see: https://sniffingthepast.wordpress.com/2016/02/03/german-shepherd-or-alsatian/ ) We have not been able to verify this number. If you find more definitive information in your research, we hope you’ll share it here. Likewise, if we find additional sources, we will post them. Thanks for reaching out to us with your query.

Yes, German Shepherds are commonly described as self-assured, excellent guard dogs and easy to train. But they also hold a variety of wonderful characteristics such as intelligent, alert, watchful, curious, obedient, courageous and confident. These amazing characteristics make them well-rounded and equally able to adapt as a working dog as well as an excellent family dog.

We love our full breed GS – we have had three others- loyal to the core. ❤️

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The History and Origin of the German Shepherd Dog

Dog ( Canis lupus familiaris )

Other names for the  German Shepherd Dog

Alsatian Berger Allemand Deutscher Schäferhund GSD Schäferhund

The  German Shepherd Dog  is a breed of large-sized dog that originated in Germany in 1899. As part of the Herding Group, German Shepherds are working dogs developed originally for herding and guarding sheep. Because of their strength, intelligence and abilities in obedience training they are often employed in police and military roles around the world.

German Shepherd Dog

In Europe during the 1850s, attempts were being made to standardise breeds. The dogs were bred to preserve traits that assisted in their job of herding sheep and protecting flocks from predators. In Germany this was practiced within local communities, where shepherds selected and bred dogs that they believed had the skills necessary for herding sheep, such as intelligence, speed, strength, and keen senses of smell. The results were dogs that were able to do such things, but that differed significantly, both in appearance and ability, from one locality to another.

To combat these differences, the Phylax Society was formed in 1891 with the intention of creating standardised dog breeds in Germany. The society disbanded after only three years due to ongoing internal conflicts regarding the traits in dogs that the society should promote; some members believed dogs should be bred solely for working purposes, while others believed dogs should be bred also for appearance. While unsuccessful in their goal, the Phylax Society had inspired people to pursue standardising dog breeds independently.

Max von Stephanitz, an ex-cavalry captain and former student of the Berlin Veterinary College, was one such ex-member. He believed strongly that dogs should be bred for working.

In 1899, Von Stephanitz was attending a dog show when he was shown a dog named  Hektor Linksrhein . Hektor was the product of few generations of selective breeding and completely fulfilled what Von Stephanitz believed a working dog should be. He was pleased with the strength of the dog and was so taken by the animal’s intelligence, loyalty, and beauty, that he purchased him immediately. After purchasing the dog he changed his name to Horand von Grafrath and Von Stephanitz founded the Verein für Deutsche Schäferhunde (Society for the German Shepherd Dog). Horand was declared to be the first German Shepherd Dog and was the first dog added to the society’s breed register.

Horand became the centre-point of the breeding programs and was bred with dogs belonging to other society members that displayed desirable traits. Although fathering many pups, Horand’s most successful was  Hektor von Schwaben . Hektor was inbred with another of Horand’s offspring and produced  Beowulf , who later fathered a total of eighty-four pups, mostly through being inbred with Hektor’s other offspring. In the original German Shepherd studbook, Zuchtbuch für Deutsche Schäferhunde (SZ), within the two pages of entries from SZ No. 41 to SZ No. 76, there are four Wolf Crosses. Beowulf’s progeny also were inbred and it is from these pups that all German Shepherds draw a genetic link. It is believed the society accomplished its goal mostly due to Von Stephanitz’s strong, uncompromising leadership and he is therefore credited with being the creator of the German Shepherd Dog.

When the UK Kennel Club first accepted registrations for the breed in 1919, fifty-four dogs were registered, and by 1926 this number had grown to over 8,000. The breed first gained international recognition at the decline of World War I after returning soldiers spoke highly of the breed, and animal actors Rin Tin Tin and Strongheart popularised the breed further. The first German Shepherd Dog registered in the United States was  Queen of Switzerland ; however, her offspring suffered from defects as the result of poor breeding, which caused the breed to suffer a decline in popularity during the late 1920s.

Popularity increased again after the German Shepherd  Sieger Pfeffer von Bern  became the 1937 and 1938 Grand Victor in American Kennel club dog shows, only to suffer another decline at the conclusion of World War II, due to anti-German sentiment of the time. As time progressed, their popularity increased gradually until 1993, when they became the third most popular breed in the United States. As of 2009, the breed was the second most popular in the US. Additionally, the breed is typically among the most popular in other registries. The German Shepherd Dog’s physique is very well suited to athletic competition. They commonly compete in shows and competitions such as agility trials.

The breed was named  Deutscher Schäferhund  by von Stephanitz, literally translating to “German Shepherd Dog”. The breed was so named due to its original purpose of assisting shepherds in herding and protecting sheep. At the time, all other herding dogs in Germany were referred to by this name; they thus became known as  Altdeutsche Schäferhunde  or Old German Shepherd Dogs.

The direct translation of the name was adopted for use in the official breed registry; however, at the conclusion of World War I, it was believed that the inclusion of the word “German” would harm the breed’s popularity, due to the anti-German sentiment of the era. The breed was officially renamed by the UK Kennel Club to “Alsatian Wolf Dog” which was also adopted by many other international kennel clubs. Eventually, the appendage “wolf dog” was dropped. The name Alsatian remained for five decades, until 1977, when successful campaigns by dog enthusiasts pressured the UK Kennel Club to allow the breed to be registered again as German Shepherd Dogs. The word “Alsatian” still appeared in parentheses as part of the formal breed name and was only removed in 2010.

Modern breed

The modern German Shepherd Dog is criticised for straying away from von Stephanitz’s original ideology for the breed: that German Shepherds should be bred primarily as working dogs, and that breeding should be strictly controlled to eliminate defects quickly. Critics believe that careless breeding has promoted disease and other defects. Under the breeding programs overseen by von Stephanitz, defects were quickly bred out; however, in modern times without regulation on breeding, genetic problems such as colour-paling, hip dysplasia, monorchidism, weakness of temperament, and missing teeth are common, as well as bent or folded ears which never fully turn up when reaching adulthood.

Description

German Shepherds are large sized dogs, generally between 55 and 65 centimetres (22 and 26 in) at the withers, with an ideal height of 63 centimetres (25 in) according to Kennel Club standards. Weight is 30–40 kilograms (66–88 lb) for males and 22–32 kilograms (49–71 lb) for females. They have a domed forehead, a long square-cut muzzle and a black nose. The jaws are strong, with a scissor-like bite. The eyes are medium-sized and brown with a lively, intelligent, and self-assured look. The ears are large and stand erect, open at the front and parallel, but they often are pulled back during movement. They have a long neck, which is raised when excited and lowered when moving at a fast pace. The tail is bushy and reaches to the hock.

German Shepherds can be a variety of colours, the most common of which are tan/black and red/black. Most colour varieties have black masks and black body markings which can range from a classic “saddle” to an over-all “blanket.” Rarer colour variations include the sable, all-black, all-white, liver, and blue varieties. The all-black and sable varieties are acceptable according to most standards; however, the blue and liver are considered to be serious faults and the all-white is grounds for instant disqualification in some standards.

German Shepherds sport a double coat. The outer coat, which sheds all year round, is close and dense with a thick undercoat. The coat is accepted in two variants; medium and long. The long-hair gene is recessive, making the long-hair variety rarer. Treatment of the long-hair variation differs across standards; they are accepted under the German and UK Kennel Clubs but are considered a fault in the American Kennel Club.

Intelligence

German Shepherds were bred specifically for their intelligence, a trait for which they are now famous. In the book  The Intelligence of Dogs , author Stanley Coren ranked the breed third for intelligence, behind Border Collies and Poodles. He found that they had the ability to learn simple tasks after only five repetitions and obeyed the first command given 95% of the time. Coupled with their strength, this trait makes the breed desirable as police, guard, and search and rescue dogs, as they are able to quickly learn various tasks and interpret instructions better than other large breeds.

Temperament

German Shepherds are highly active dogs, and described in breed standards as self-assured. The breed is marked by a willingness to learn and an eagerness to have a purpose. They are curious which makes them excellent guard dogs and suitable for search missions. They can become over-protective of their family and territory, especially if not socialised correctly. They are not inclined to become immediate friends with strangers. German Shepherds are highly intelligent and obedient.

Many common ailments of the German Shepherds are a result of the inbreeding practiced early in the breed’s life. One such common ailment is hip and elbow dysplasia which may lead to the dog experiencing pain in later life, and may cause arthritis. A study by the University of Zurich in police working dogs found that 45% were affected by degenerative spinal stenosis, although the sample studied was small. The Orthopedic Foundation for Animals found that 19.1% of German Shepherd are affected by hip dysplasia. Due to the large and open nature of their ears, Shepherds are prone to ear infections. German Shepherds, like all large bodied dogs, are prone to bloat.

According to a recent survey in the UK, the median life span of German Shepherds is 10.95 years, which is normal for a dog of their size. Degenerative myelopathy (CDRM), a neurological disease, occurs with enough regularity specifically in the breed to suggest that the breed is predisposed to it. A very inexpensive DNA saliva test is now available to screen for Degenerative Myelopathy. The test screens for the mutated gene that has been seen in dogs with degenerative myelopathy. Now that a test is available the disease can be bred out of breeds with a high preponderance. The test is only recommended for predisposed breeds, but can be performed on DNA from any dog on samples collected through swabbing the inside of the animal’s cheek with a sterile cotton swab.

Controversy

The Kennel Club has been embroiled in a dispute with German Shepherd breed clubs about the issue of soundness in the show-strain breed. The show-strains have been bred with an extremely sloping topline (back) that causes poor gait in the hind legs. Working-pedigree lines, such as those in common use as service dogs, generally retain the traditional straight back of the breed. The debate was catalyzed when the issue was raised in the BBC documentary,  Pedigree Dogs Exposed , which said that critics of the breed describe it as “half dog, half frog”. An orthopedic vet remarked on footage of dogs in a show ring that they were “not normal”.

The Kennel Club’s position is that “this issue of soundness is not a simple difference of opinion, it is the fundamental issue of the breed’s essential conformation and movement.” The Kennel Club has decided to retrain judges to penalize dogs suffering these problems. It is also insisting on more testing for hemophilia and hip dysplasia, other common problems with the breed.

Urban Search and Rescue Task Force dog works to uncover survivors at the site of the collapsed World Trade Center after the September 11, 2001 attacks.

Use as working dog

German Shepherds are a very popular selection for use as working dogs. They are especially well known for their police work, being used for tracking criminals, patrolling troubled areas, and detection and holding of suspects. Additionally thousands of German Shepherds have been used by the military. Usually trained for scout duty, they are used to warn soldiers to the presence of enemies or of booby traps or other hazards. German Shepherds have also been trained by military groups to parachute from aircraft.

The German Shepherd Dog is one of the most widely used breeds in a wide variety of scent-work roles. These include search and rescue, cadaver searching, narcotics detection, explosives detection, accelerant detection, and mine detection dog, among others. They are suited for these lines of work because of their keen sense of smell and their ability to work regardless of distractions.

At one time the German Shepherd Dog was the breed chosen almost exclusively to be used as a guide dog for the visually impaired. In recent years, Labradors and Golden Retrievers have been more widely used for this work, although there are still German Shepherds being trained. A versatile breed, they excel in this field due to their strong sense of duty, their mental abilities, their fearlessness, and their attachment to their owner.

German Shepherd Dogs are used for herding and tending sheep grazing in meadows next to gardens and crop fields. They are expected to patrol the boundaries to keep sheep from trespassing and damaging the crops. In Germany and other places these skills are tested in utility dog trials also known as HGH (Herdengebrauchshund) herding utility dog trials.

In popular culture

Strongheart, one of the earliest canine stars.

German Shepherds have been featured in a wide range of media. Strongheart the German Shepherd was one of the earliest canine film stars and was followed by Rin Tin Tin, who is now acclaimed as being the most famous German Shepherd. Both have stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. German Shepherds were used in the popular Canadian series The Littlest Hobo. Batman’s dog Ace the Bat-Hound appeared in the Batman comic books, initially in 1955, through 1964. Between 1964 and 2007, his appearances were sporadic.

Rex, a German Shepherd, is the eponymous police dog character of the Austrian television drama  Inspector Rex .

The animated movie  All Dogs Go To Heaven  stars a German Shepherd named “Charlie Barkin”. He is also the main character in the sequel and the TV series.

The 2003 Disney movie  101 Dalmatians II: Patch’s London Adventure  shows Thunderbolt the German Shepherd, who is a television hero.

The 2007 Hollywood movie  I am Legend  starring Will Smith as virologist Robert Neville shows a German Shepherd Dog Samantha (Sam) as the only companion of Neville in the deserted New York City where a lethal strain of virus has spread. The movie portrays a close bond between the main character and his dog.

Next – Breed Standards

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Home > Dog Breed Reviews > German Shepherd Dog

German Shepherds: What's Good About 'Em, What's Bad About 'Em

German Shepherd temperament, personality, training, behavior, pros and cons, advice, and information, by Michele Welton , Dog Trainer, Behavioral Consultant, Author of 15 Dog Books

Jump directly to:

• Temperament
• Pros and Cons
• With strangers
• With children
• With other pets
• Similar breeds

German Shepherds were my very first breed. This noble-looking male has a beautiful rugged head, intelligent expression, and rich coloration.

My experience with German Shepherd temperament

Temperament and behavior stem from what the breed was designed for.

To understand a breed's temperament and behavior, ask, "What was he developed to do?" Whichever traits help him accomplish his intended work have likely been "hard-wired" into his genes – not perfectly, but generally.

The German Shepherd was developed from various sheepherding dogs. So you would expect sheepherding traits such as athleticism, a compulsion to chase things that move, and swift responsiveness to their human shepherd/master.

German Shepherds were also developed as military messenger and sentry dogs, and as personal protection and police dogs. So expect traits such as aloofness toward strangers and protective/territorial instincts.

The breed also excels at search and rescue, bomb and drug detection, and guiding the blind. Certainly you would expect high intelligence, high self-confidence, trainability, and an ability to focus.

All of those traits are what you get in an ideal German Shepherd. One of the most capable and trainable breeds in all of dogdom, an ideal German Shepherd, when properly raised by a confident owner, can be a magnificent companion. There's a good reason my first dogs were German Shepherds!

Unfortunately, it can be difficult today to find a German Shepherd with an ideal temperament. Or at least an ideal temperament to be a good family companion.

Different lines have different temperaments

Today, the temperament of a German Shepherd often depends largely upon what kind of line   he comes from.

Some breeders, you see, produce working lines   of German Shepherds with high-drive   temperaments – vigorous and intense. These dogs are ideal for competitive protection-dog sports. But not so much for the average family companion – unless you looked carefully for an individual pup in one of those litters who didn't inherit that high-drive temperament.

Other breeders produce show lines   that match a detailed standard of conformation for the show ring. These dogs are softer-tempered than those from working lines. That sounds nice and yet....

I've worked with far too many   German Shepherds from show lines who were hyperactive, skittish, spooky, or downright dopey. This happens when breeders focus on appearance more than temperament and trainability.

My recommendation for a good family dog

If you're looking for an easygoing family companion, I would avoid both strict show lines and strict working lines.

Instead, you might look for more of a generalist breeder who focuses on calmness and high trainability. These breeders might prove their dogs' trainability by participating in non-protection dog sports such as obedience, rally, or agility.

Or, if you want a truly mellow Shepherd, you might consider a longhaired or perhaps a solid white German Shepherd. These dogs are seldom bred for aggressive dog sports, so they tend to have a milder temperament that fits well into many families.

Just be careful with the whites. A good number of them are too   soft, which can result in timidity or skittishness.

I hope you can see....

....that with German Shepherds more than most other breeds, you must know what you want before you start calling breeders or looking at litters.

Because if you don't know what you want, and what you don't want, and if you don't ask the right questions, you're likely to end up with a German Shepherd that isn't at all what you were looking for – and possibly one who is too much for you to handle.

Such an intelligent expression – confident and inquiring.

Pros and cons of German Shepherds

• Handsome, natural-looking, athletic
• Thrives on challenging activities and exercise
• Loyal to his own family
• Looks imposing and has a reputation that bad guys don't want to fool with, so makes an effective deterrent
• Highly intelligent and versatile – can learn almost anything
• Can be hard to find one with a family-oriented temperament and a decent chance of staying healthy
• Needs plenty of exercise and interesting things to do
• Needs careful socialization
• Destructiveness when bored or not exercised enough
• Potential aggression toward other animals
• Constant shedding – 365 days a year
• Legal liabilities (insurance issues, increased chance of lawsuits)
• High risk of serious health problems

Keep in mind that the inheritance of temperament   is less predictable than the inheritance of physical   traits such as size or shedding. Temperament and behavior are also shaped by raising and training.

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• You can avoid some negative traits by choosing an ADULT dog from an animal shelter or rescue group . With an adult dog, you can easily see what you're getting, and plenty of adult German Shepherds have already proven themselves not to have negative characteristics.
• If you want a puppy, you can avoid some negative traits by choosing the right breeder and the right puppy .

How big are German Shepherds?

Males stand about 24-26 inches at the shoulder and weigh 75-110 pounds.

Females stand about 22-24 inches and weigh 65-90 pounds.

Some German Shepherds are considerably larger than that, but shouldn't be. This breed is supposed to be athletic and agile, not giant-sized and ponderous. Larger dogs can have more joint problems and a shorter lifespan.

Are there different "types" of German Shepherds?

Officially there's only the one breed. But I explained in the Temperament section that there are different lines of German Shepherds with different temperaments. Those lines can also LOOK very different from each other.

Those of us who admired the strong, noble look of German Shepherds from decades ago are saddened at what has been done to the appearance of modern show dogs.

If you go to a German Shepherd specialty show in the United States or Canada, you'll see tall narrow bodies, long narrow heads, and such excessive curvature of the rear legs that the dog's back slopes downward from shoulders to tail. You could roll a ball down that back.

In my opinion, these are misshapen caricatures of a German Shepherd. To make matters worse, show lines produce more than their share of spooky and low-intelligence dogs, which is what happens when you over-focus on appearance rather than temperament and trainability.

In contrast, the West German show line has a more normal shape. Best of all, German Shepherds in West Germany cannot win show ring ribbons or be bred without passing a temperament/trainability test.

There are many West German bloodlines in the United States. So if you're interested, you can look for show breeders who emphasize West German lines instead of American/Canadian.

Just be aware that these dogs aren't couch potatoes: they do have plenty of energy and some working drives that will need to be exercised .

Solid black German Shepherds are less common, but when combined with a rugged build, makes for a very handsome dog.

Working/protection lines

I love these lines because the dogs look and behave more like German Shepherds.

It's true that working lines are often too strong-tempered and intense for the average family. But if you're an experienced owner who knows how to be in charge and if you provide firm rules and plenty of physical and mental exercise, working lines can make great companions.

Knowledgeable working dog breeders can point you toward the pups in their litters who are calmer and have less working drive.

In the United States, working lines stem predominantly from West Germany or East Germany.

I don't recommend East German (often called DDR) lines. DDR stands for Deutsches Demokratische Republik , the name by which East Germany was known while the Berlin Wall was up. These dogs were used by the military and border patrol, so they're tough, not recommended for the average family.

You might be thinking, "Must I choose show line or working line? Isn't there another choice, like a line specifically bred to be a good pet?"

Some breeders blend show and working lines, trying to produce a more moderate build and temperament.

Some breeders emphasize high trainability, competing with their intelligent dogs in non-protection sports such as obedience or agility.

Other breeders emphasize "old style" German Shepherds with a more rugged build. But avoid breeders who boast about their "giant" German Shepherds. Packing more weight onto the frame and joints of a breed that's supposed to be medium to large is a huge (pun intended) mistake.

German Shepherd with long hair. This particular dog has a minimalist long coat – just some ear tufts and a body coat that's slightly longer than normal.

Shorthaired or longhaired

When you're thinking about the different types of German Shepherds, you should also consider the two types of COAT:

The normal coat is short hair. But German Shepherds also come in a longer coat. Both coats are the same breed.

Unfortunately, in the United States, long coats are frowned upon by the official clubs and show-dog breeders. Long-coated dogs can be registered, bred, and shown in certain activities such as obedience and agility. But they're not welcome in the conformation ring, where judging is based on appearance.

Some long-coated Shepherds have essentially a short body coat with only minor feathering around their ears, on the backs of their legs, and on their bum and tail. Other long-coated German Shepherds have long hair across most of their body.

Do long haired German Shepherds have a different build or temperament? Yes, often they do. Because they're not welcome in the conformation ring, their structure hasn't been deformed like that of their shorthaired brothers.

And because they're seldom seen in protection dog sports, their temperament tends to be softer and milder, which fits well into many families.

German Shepherds are active dogs, but should not be hyperactive. Fetch games are a great way to exercise this breed.

How much exercise do German Shepherds need?

German Shepherd puppies and adolescents (up to 18 months old) should have moderate exercise only – multiple walks, fetch games, or (if there is a compatible playmate) playing with another dog.

But the growing bones and ligaments in a young dog can be irreparably damaged by too much exercise or the wrong kind of exercise. At this age, there should be no forced running (beside a jogger or bicyclist). Restrict jumping as much as possible.

Once the dog is mature, the amount of exercise needed will vary according to the dog's energy level. But all German Shepherds, to maintain fitness, need brisk walking every day and all-out running in a safe, enclosed area as often as possible.

Dogs from working lines typically want a lot more exercise.

Mental exercise is even more important for German Shepherds. Mental exercise means the dog gets to participate in interesting activities that keep his intelligent mind stimulated.

This might be a dog sport such as agility, rally obedience, musical freestyle, tracking, flyball, herding, or schutzhund. It might be interactive dog toys, or a homemade obstacle course, or learning tricks, or playing games such as Hide 'n Seek.

Some of these activities are included in my free online training book, Teach Your Dog 100 English Words .

Handsome black German Shepherd, attentively awaiting your next words.

Are German Shepherds easy to train?

Some are easy to train, while others are more moderate.

As we've seen, different lines have different temperaments. German Shepherds from working lines are typically more assertive and stronger-willed. A "tougher" German Shepherd will be more challenging to train unless you pay closer attention to building the right Leader-Follower relationship with the dog.

That doesn't mean "softer" German Shepherds are automatically easy to train. Some dogs with soft temperaments are skittish or shy, making them just as challenging as a strong-tempered dog.

In general, though, a sound-tempered German Shepherd who is a good fit for family life should be easy to train. Just establish the right Leader-Follower relationship and the dog will be happy to work with you.

This is taught in my free puppy training book, Respect Training For Puppies (30 seconds to a calm, polite, well-behaved puppy).

How sociable are German Shepherds?

Are they friendly with strangers.

Most German Shepherds are reserved with strangers. As the breed's national club says, a good German Shepherd has:

"a certain aloofness that does not lend itself to immediate and indiscriminate friendships. The dog must be approachable, quietly standing its ground and showing confidence and willingness to meet overtures without itself making them."

As you might imagine, this can be a fine line to walk. Without proper guidance from the owner, a German Shepherd's natural aloofness can morph over the line to suspiciousness, distrust, and even aggression or fearfulness.

When you own an aloof breed, you need to socialize the dog thoroughly. This means a careful program of teaching him to pay attention to you and mind you in the presence of other people and other dogs. He doesn't have to like   them, but he must accept them.

One thing I should mention: many German Shepherds who bark and lunge at strangers or other dogs aren't being either protective or aggressive. Rather, this kind of reactivity can be the dog's attempt to hide his own insecurities behind a blustering facade.

At the other end of the spectrum are German Shepherds who tuck their tail between their legs, and try to hide behind you or run away whenever a stranger or another dog approaches. Sometimes this is just inexperience with the world, but sometimes it's an inherited   form of shyness. German Shepherds who are genetically shy can be helped by socialization – but not "cured." Yet another reason to be very careful when acquiring this breed.

There are also legal liabilities to consider when you acquire a German Shepherd. For example, your homeowner insurance policy might be cancelled or the rates hiked, because people are often quicker to sue if a "guard dog breed" does anything even remotely questionable.

Are German Shepherds good with children?

If the dog was raised with childen and if the children are well-behaved, most German Shepherds with a normal temperament are fine with them.

But if you have young children, you need to be especially careful about bringing an adult German Shepherd with an unknown background into your home. That dog should have a stellar temperament vouched for by experienced rescue personnel.

Also I wouldn't be comfortable with some high-drive German Shepherds around toddlers. These vigorous, intense dogs could send a toddler flying without even meaning to.

Are German Shepherds good with other pets?

Most German Shepherds are fine with other dogs and cats in their own family, if introduced to them when the dog is young. I've had multiple German Shepherds living harmoniously with my Chihuahuas and cats.

However, some German Shepherds show strong predatory/chasing behavior toward cats and other animals that run.

And some German Shepherds are dominant, or aggressive, toward other dogs of the same sex. My dog Luke, for example, would never dream of harming a female dog – but he would have loved to engage any strange male. Only a firm Respect Training program kept his behavior under control.

Long-coated German Shepherd. Keep their feathering combed out to avoid painful mats and tangles.

Grooming: Do German Shepherds shed a lot? Are they easy to groom?

About shedding.....

I have good news and bad news.

The good news is that German Shepherds have only one shedding period a year.

The bad news is.... their shedding period lasts for 365 days. In other words, German Shepherds shed constantly.

How is this different from most breeds?

Most breeds shed a few hairs here and there throughout the year. But the vast bulk of their shedding occurs only twice a year – for three weeks in the spring as their thicker winter coat switches over to a cooler summer coat, and for three weeks in the fall as the summer coat switches over to a winter coat.

Not German Shepherds. They shed a TON during those spring and fall coat-switching seasons. Plus they shed moderately the rest of the year.

So year-round, you'll find hair on your clothing, on your carpets, and under your refrigerator. Frequent vaccuming will become a way of life.

You might be wondering, "How can a shorthaired dog shed so much?" The answer is that German Shepherds have a double coat. They have a short outer coat (harsh to the touch), plus a woolly undercoat (for insulation). Breeds with a double coat always shed more than breeds who simply have an outer coat but no undercoat.

German Shepherds come in a long coat, as well as a short coat. Both coats shed heavily.

Now, about grooming....

How much   grooming is required depends on whether a German Shepherd is shorthaired or longhaired.

We've already talked about the temperament (usually good) of longhaired German Shepherds. As far as grooming goes, they obviously need regular brushing and combing to prevent mats and tangles. The longer the coat, the more work it will be.

But even if your Shepherd has a short coat, you're not off the hook when it comes to brushing. With a constant shedder, you should brush as often as possible to pull out the shed hairs before they end up on your floor and furnishings.

Ironically, longhaired German Shepherds often seem to shed less than the shorthaired. That's because some shed hair gets caught in the long coat instead of falling out. The trade-off is that you need to brush out that accumulated hair regularly or it will tangle and fuse into a matted mess.

Longhaired dogs need trimming

Along with brushing and combing, longhaired German Shepherds need trimming every few months.

Focus on the longish hair around the dog's private parts. Otherwise whenever he goes to the bathroom, the result is going to be unsanitary, both for the dog and for your house. Remember, anything that sticks to long hair eventually ends up on your floor or furnishings. So keep your dog's private parts trimmed short.

Gray sable pattern

How long do German Shepherds live? Are they a healthy breed?

German Shepherds typically live 10-12 years. Some do live to 13 or 14, but usually with chronic health issues such as arthritis.

And sadly, many don't even make it to age 10.

As a long-time German Shepherd owner, I know first-hand how many health problems this breed suffers from. Crippling joint diseases, autoimmune diseases, digestive diseases, skin diseases, heart and eye diseases.... truly a breed with serious health problems.

Here is a complete list of health problems in German Shepherds.

Or see my advice on → keeping your dog healthy (feeding, vaccinations, neutering, veterinarians, and more).

The most common color in German Shepherds – black and tan, in the saddleback pattern

What colors do German Shepherds come in?

The most common colors are black and tan, black and red, black and cream, or black and silver. These colors cover the dog in one of these three patterns:

• Saddleback – the black overlays the dog's back and sides (like a saddle). The rest of the dog is tan, red, cream, or silver. Usually there's some black on the face, as well.
• Blanketback – the black extends further down the shoulders and hips.
• Bicolor – like a Doberman or Rottweiler, which is mostly black with small tan/red/cream markings specifically confined to the head, chest, and legs. Honestly I don't know why this pattern is called bicolor , which simply means two colors. As we've just seen, the other two patterns also have just two colors.

Another common color is sable , which is an overall shade of gray, golden, or red, with black-tipped hairs that create a "dusted with black" effect.

A less common, but perfectly acceptable, color is solid black.

"Faulty" colors

Then there are two controversial colors: blue and liver :

• Blue German Shepherds have inherited a color-modifying gene that changes their black pigment to smoky gray. Many blue dogs look as though they've been dusted with flour.
• Liver German Shepherds have inherited a color-modifying gene that changes their black pigment to brown (any shade from light to dark).

If a dog has inherited either of these color-modifying genes, all of his black pigment is changed to blue/gray or brown, including his nose and the pads of his feet. For example, if a German Shepherd would have been a black and tan saddleback – except that he inherited a modifying gene – he becomes a blue and tan saddleback, or a liver and tan saddleback.

Blue and liver are considered serious faults by the official German Shepherd clubs and breeders who show their dogs in the conformation ring. But you can still register these dogs and compete with them in activities such as obedience and agility.

Controversial color: solid white

As with blue and liver, you can register a white German Shepherd and show him in competitive activities such as obedience and agility. But you can't show him in the conformation ring.

Why? Well, the Powers-That-Be say white is an unacceptable color because German Shepherds were developed to be herding and guard dogs. White dogs, they say, are too visible to make effective guard dogs. On the other hand, white dogs blend in too much with the sheep or snow instead of being clearly visible to the human shepherd.

If you love the white color, you might be pleased to hear that White Shepherd enthusiasts have formed their own club, which holds its own conformation shows.

Do German Shepherd ears stand up on their own, or do they have to be cut or taped to make them stand up?

Ah, you're thinking about cropping , a surgical procedure to make the ears stand up. That's done with Doberman Pinschers, but not with German Shepherds. A Shepherd puppy's ears prick up naturally – they're never cropped.

German Shepherd puppy with perfectly normal ears at this age. If the pup inherited normal genes, the other ear should come up shortly.

But German Shepherd puppies aren't born with pricked ears. In some pups, the ears start to prick up at 6 or 8 weeks old, while others don't start until 12 or 14 weeks old.

Often the ears don't go up smoothly. In other words, they don't suddenly pop straight up. Typically one ear will go up halfway, and stay like that for a few days. Then the other ear may start to prick while the first ear straightens all the way up. A few days later, just as the second ear straightens up, the first one suddenly flops back down.

This can be a trying time for new owners who worry that their pup's ears will never stand properly. Rest assured, it's normal for German Shepherd puppy ears to go up and down for a month or two, especially during the teething period.

Unfortunately, some puppies do inherit poor genes for ear strength and often those ears will never come all the way up. They're called "soft ears." Sometimes taping a weak ear can help it stand erect, but often not.

I had a German Shepherd with one soft ear. It flopped sideways on top of his head, while the other ear stood up beautifully. Of course I loved him dearly anyway!

Most German Shepherd puppies start out with floppy ears and dark coloration.

German Shepherd Puppies

If you already have a german shepherd puppy.....

Congratulations! I'll be happy to show you how to raise and train your new family member.

• Follow my free puppy training book, Respect Training for Puppies: 30 seconds to a calm, polite, well-behaved puppy.
• Also see my advice on German Shepherd health care , including feeding and vaccinations

If you don't have a German Shepherd puppy, but you want one....

I can help you with that, too.

German Shepherds are extremely common in the United States, the 2nd most common of all breeds.

So they're very easy to find. The problem is finding one with the best chances of developing a stable temperament and the best chances of staying healthy through the years.

THAT is harder to do.

First, you need to think about the different types of German Shepherds we talked about earlier. The different temperament types and the different build and coat types .

You'll remember... show lines, working lines, old-style lines, longhaired lines, solid white lines.... one German Shepherd can be very different from another.

Or you can just hop onto Craigslist and buy a puppy from someone who "just breeds pets" or "just had one litter." But should you?

Not unless the seller has done the proper health certifications on the puppy's parents . One huge difference between a responsible breeder and an irresponsible "puppy producer" is – health certifications.

Both parents of a German Shepherd puppy should have OFA certificates for hips, elbows, and heart. One parent should have a certificate showing them to be clear of degenerative myelopathy. This is the fastest way to rule out all the bad breeders. No certificates equals irresponsible breeding.

BOTH PARENTS of a German Shepherd puppy should have:

• a certificate from the Orthopedic Foundation of America (OFA) or PennHip certifying the dog to have normal hips
• a certificate from the Orthopedic Foundation of America (OFA) certifying the dog to have normal elbows
• a certificate from the Orthopedic Foundation of America (OFA) or a report from a veterinary cardiologist – dated within the past year – certifying that the dog has had an Advanced Cardiac Exam and has a normal heart

Also, at least ONE PARENT of a German Shepherd puppy should have:

• a DNA test proving they are Normal/Clear of a severe neurological disease called degenerative myelopathy . Many years ago, I had a dear German Shepherd with this devastating disease. Believe me, you do not want to go through that.

If a seller can't show you those certificates, the puppies are higher risk for health problems. You might choose to accept that risk. But then you need to be willing (and able) to pay a couple thousand bucks for future surgeries and lifelong meds if your German Shepherd ends up crippled, paralyzed, or stricken with heart disease.

See my advice on → finding  a good dog

How do I adopt a German Shepherd?

Because of their popularity, and because so many owners acquire one without doing diligent research, German Shepherds are often available from dog rescue groups .

German Shepherd crosses and mixes are frequently found in animal shelters .

However, shelter personnel can be over-zealous in labeling every medium- to large dog with a vaguely shepherd-ish look as a "German Shepherd cross." Be aware that a dog can look like a German Shepherd without having any Shepherd genes at all.

What breeds are similar to German Shepherds?

The Shiloh Shepherd looks like a large German Shepherd, which is not surprising since the Shiloh was developed 50 years ago by crossing German Shepherds with larger breeds. Compared to German Shepherds, Shiloh Shepherds tend to have a calmer, more easygoing personality.

Compared to German Shepherds, most White Shepherds have a softer, more sensitive personality. White Shepherds are fine watchdogs, but seldom aggressive. In fact, if a White Shepherd is going to have any temperament fault, it's more likely to be timidity or skittishness.

The Belgian Shepherd is recommended only for experienced owners. Compared to the German Shepherd, a Belgian is more agile, graceful, and elegant. Belgian Shepherds are highly intelligent, but also easily bored and prone to obsessive behaviors. This is a demanding breed that needs ongoing supervision and structured activities.

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The Splendor of German Shepherd Dogs: Unraveling Their Unique Excellence

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The German Shepherd Dog: A Distinctive Presence

Versatility in Purpose: From Herding to Guardianship

Unraveling the layers: a comprehensive look at german shepherd dogs, the bond between humans and german shepherd dogs, german shepherd dogs as working professionals, conclusion: the art of canine companionship.

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Modern Roles of German Shepherds: Law Enforcement and Military Insights

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German Shepherds have come a long way since their early days in Germany.

Known for their intelligence, dedication, and versatile capabilities, these dogs have been effectively serving in military and law enforcement for many decades.

Captain Max von Stephanitz, the founder of the modern German Shepherd breed in the late 19th century, would surely be proud to see how his beloved breed has evolved over time and contributed to the world.

In the field of law enforcement, these loyal and courageous dogs are trained to work with their human partners in various tasks such as narcotics detection, search and rescue, crowd control, and tracking suspects.

In the military sphere, they have been indispensable in tasks such as bomb detection, search and rescue, and even parachute jumps alongside their handlers.

While they take up these demanding roles, their incredible abilities to form strong bonds with their human partners have earned them the respect and affection of those who work side by side with them.

Key Takeaways

• German Shepherds are versatile and highly skilled working dogs, serving in various roles in both military and law enforcement.
• Their outstanding traits, such as intelligence, dedication, and strong bonds with their human handlers, make them an essential part of diverse operations.
• The breed’s storied history and contemporary duties exemplify their incredible contributions to both civilian life and protective services.

Roles of German Shepherds: Law Enforcement and Military

Initial role and world wars.

As I look back in history, I find that German Shepherds have had a long-standing relationship with law enforcement and military roles.

During World War I and World War II, these dogs served bravely as sentries, guards, and messengers. Their keen senses, intelligence, and loyalty made them ideal for these crucial roles on the battlefield.

In fact, many German Shepherds were highly decorated war heroes. Some were awarded prestigious medals, such as the Silver Star and the Purple Heart, for their acts of valor during these conflicts.

The involvement of German Shepherds in both world wars solidified their reputation as a key asset in military operations.

Post War Transition

After World War II, the need for German Shepherds in military roles continued to grow, leading to the establishment of various war dog programs around the world, including the 26th Infantry Scout Dog Platoon and the K-9 Corps.

In the German army itself, these dogs were specifically trained to become expert sentry dogs and guard dogs that would protect soldiers and strategic locations.

The role of German Shepherds further expanded as they became an integral part of various wars that followed, such as the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and more recent conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan.

These remarkable dogs have not only continued to serve as sentries and guards but have also been trained for critical search and rescue missions, detecting explosives, and providing emotional support to troops.

Throughout their history, German Shepherds have proved their immense value in law enforcement and military operations.

Their loyalty, intelligence, and bravery remain a testament to their enduring significance as indispensable members of these critical fields.

Roles in Today’s Military and Law Enforcement

As a writer who’s passionate about German Shepherds, I’d love to share with you the various roles these incredible dogs play in our modern military and law enforcement.

Patrol Duties

When I think of German Shepherds in the military and law enforcement, the first thing that comes to my mind is their patrol duties.

These highly-trained dogs are often used by the armed forces and police for patrolling and providing security.

Their keen senses and instincts make them highly effective in detecting any threats or unusual activities in the area.

I’ve learned that military working dogs, such as German Shepherds, are trained to work alongside their human handlers, forming bonds that are crucial for effective teamwork.

These patrol dogs are able to successfully navigate difficult environments, from crowded urban streets to rugged military bases, providing an additional layer of security during their operations.

Explosives and Drugs Detection

Another vital role of German Shepherds in law enforcement and military service is their ability to detect explosives and drugs.

Equipped with their highly sensitive noses, these detection dogs can sniff out a wide range of substances, including narcotics and contraband, that might otherwise be difficult for humans to find.

In the work I’ve done researching military working dogs, I’ve discovered that these intelligent canines undergo intensive training to specialize in either explosives detection or narcotics detection.

This specialization allows them to focus their skills and become highly effective in their respective fields, whether that’s identifying hidden bombs in a war zone or locating illegal substances during a police raid.

Throughout their service in the armed forces and law enforcement, these brave and highly skilled German Shepherds play a significant role in the defense of our communities and the safety of our soldiers.

Their unwavering dedication, loyalty, and versatile capabilities make them an invaluable asset in modern military and police operations.

Comparative Analysis with Other Breeds

Belgian malinois and dutch shepherds.

In comparison to  Belgian Malinois and Dutch Shepherds , I find that German Shepherds have a more balanced temperament.

While Belgian Malinois and Dutch Shepherds are known for their high intelligence and exceptional trainability, they tend to have a more intense drive, making them less suitable for less-experienced handlers.

German Shepherds, on the other hand, have a more calm demeanor, making them better suited for a wider range of handlers in law enforcement and military roles.

That being said, Belgian Malinois and Dutch Shepherds have been gaining popularity for their remarkable abilities to learn commands quickly and follow them obediently.

They are easy to train and work well within a budget, which is appealing to many organizations.

Labrador Retrievers, Rottweilers, and Doberman Pinschers

On the other hand,  Labrador Retrievers, Rottweilers, and Doberman Pinschers  also serve in law enforcement and military roles owing to their unique set of skills.

Labrador Retrievers, though friendly and typically having a calmer disposition, demonstrate high intelligence and trainability, making them excellent at detecting odors such as explosives and narcotics.

Rottweilers and Doberman Pinschers showcase their skills in protection and guarding roles.

With their sturdy builds and strong temperaments, they can deter potential threats while also remaining obedient to their handlers.

Though not as versatile as German Shepherds when it comes to multiple roles, their strengths in guarding and protecting cannot be neglected.

Airedale Terrier

Lastly, the  Airedale Terrier  may stand out as a less common choice among these working dog breeds, but it hosts a set of skills that should not be overlooked.

Like the German Shepherd, the Airedale Terrier is highly intelligent and learns commands easily. With its agility and strength, it can prove useful in various law enforcement and military roles.

I find it important to highlight that regardless of breed, individual dog temperaments and abilities can vary significantly.

The qualities mentioned above may not encompass every trait of these breeds, and each dog should be carefully assessed for suitability in their respective roles within law enforcement and the military.

Traits and Special Abilities

In my experience, German Shepherds have a unique combination of traits and special abilities that make them excellent candidates for roles in law enforcement and the military.

Their remarkable skills in tracking, courageous demeanor, and unwavering loyalty have made them indispensable.

I’ve noticed that one of their most outstanding skills is  tracking . German Shepherds have an acute sense of smell and are capable of following scents over long distances.

This ability is invaluable when searching for missing persons, tracking fugitives, or detecting contraband like drugs or explosives.

Their  courage  never ceases to amaze me. German Shepherds are fearless and confident in the face of danger.

This quality is essential when working in high-risk situations, such as apprehending criminals or entering potentially hazardous environments.

Their courage allows them to protect their handlers, and they are often the first to charge into a risky situation.

I can’t help but admire their  loyalty . A German Shepherd is fiercely loyal to its handler and is willing to risk its own life for the safety of its human counterpart.

This loyalty, combined with their natural protective instincts, makes them excellent partners for members of law enforcement and the military.

In addition to loyalty, I find German Shepherds to be quite  protective . They are always on guard, ready to defend their handlers and territory.

This innate sense of duty makes them ideal protectors, whether they are serving in a police K-9 unit or as a military working dog.

Their  tenacity  is another trait worth noting. German Shepherds are known for their determination and perseverance, especially when it comes to completing tasks.

This tenacity serves them well in law enforcement and military operations, where they often need to work under challenging and demanding circumstances.

Lastly, I appreciate the fact that German Shepherds are  confident  and  courageous . A well-trained German Shepherd is unshakable in its resolve, able to face potential threats head-on.

This confidence, coupled with their courage, allows them to be effective in various roles, from narcotics detection to search and rescue.

In conclusion, German Shepherds possess a combination of traits and special abilities that make them well-suited for law enforcement and military roles.

Their tracking skills, courage, loyalty, protectiveness, tenacity, and confidence are just a few of the many reasons why these remarkable dogs are so highly valued in these fields.

Contributions to Civilian Life

Search and rescue.

In my experience, German Shepherds have been remarkably valuable in search and rescue operations. Their keen sense of smell and innate ability to track make them extraordinary tracking dogs.

As a result, they’ve become indispensable members of K9 units, assisting in locating missing persons and sniffing out evidence in police work.

I’ve observed that their unique skills are honed through rigorous K9 training, resulting in highly efficient search and rescue dogs that can quickly navigate challenging terrains while staying focused on their task.

Companionships and Service

Outside of their roles in law enforcement and the military, I’ve witnessed the warmth and loyalty German Shepherds offer as companions.

They’re not only amazing pets for families and individuals but also excel as service dogs. Having worked alongside them in various capacities, I can personally attest to their determination and adaptability.

They serve as exceptional guide dogs for individuals with visual impairments and have been trained to assist people with mobility challenges, PTSD, and other disabilities, providing constant support and unfaltering devotion.

Community Protection

German Shepherds have always played a crucial role in keeping our communities safe. Their history in civilian life dates back to their involvement in the 26th Scout Dog Platoon during World War II, where they patrolled and protected communities from harm.

Today, they continue to be highly trained and reliable members of local patrols, often contributing to K9 units within police forces.

Their strength, intelligence, and loyalty make them perfect candidates for canine roles in community protection, ensuring our streets and neighborhoods remain safe and secure.

Through their multiple roles in search and rescue, companionship, and community defense, German Shepherds have made undeniably significant contributions to civilian life.

Their unwavering commitment and versatility make them invaluable members of our communities, and I feel honored to have had the opportunity to work alongside these incredible animals.

Controversies and Challenges

Euthanasia and adoption issues.

In my experience, one of the major controversies surrounding the use of German Shepherds in law enforcement and the military is the unfortunate reality of euthanasia and adoption issues.

When these dogs retire from service or are deemed unsuitable for duty, they often face uncertain futures.

Some may have developed aggression issues due to the nature of their work, which can make it difficult for them to be adopted into loving homes.

In cases where retired dogs display aggression or pose a risk to their handlers or the public, they may be euthanized.

This is a heartbreaking situation for everyone involved, and it raises ethical questions about whether it is right to put these dogs, who have served bravely, in such situations.

To address this issue, some organizations are doing their best to help retired service dogs find new homes, with a focus on properly assessing their temperament and matching them with suitable adoptive families.

This approach helps ensure that these loyal canines are given the opportunity to live out their lives in a loving and safe environment.

Legislations Impacting Police Dogs

Another challenge faced by German Shepherds serving in law enforcement and the military is the legislative impact on their roles.

In some regions, certain laws can restrict the use of police dogs for specific tasks or even limit the breed types allowed to serve as police dogs.

This may lead to German Shepherds being underutilized or even abandoned, despite their proven track record and abilities in these fields.

For instance, laws may prevent law enforcement agencies from deploying these dogs in certain situations, such as crowd control or search and rescue operations, due to concerns about their potential for attacking civilians or causing injury.

These laws can be influenced by public concerns or misconceptions about the breed’s temperament and their suitability for certain tasks.

In conclusion, while German Shepherds continue to play crucial roles in law enforcement and the military, they also face controversies and challenges related to euthanasia, adoption, and legislation.

To ensure that these remarkable dogs continue to be utilized effectively and humanely, it is essential to address these issues and work towards creating a supportive environment for them to thrive in.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why are german shepherds a popular choice for law enforcement.

I believe German Shepherds are a popular choice for law enforcement because of their intelligence, strength, and versatility.

These loyal dogs are known to have great work ethics and an innate ability to follow commands.

Moreover, they have a strong protective instinct, which makes them suitable for tasks like patrolling and guarding facilities.

What tasks do German Shepherds perform in military operations?

In military operations, German Shepherds often perform tasks like scouting, detecting explosives, and carrying messages.

They are also trained for search and rescue missions, as their keen sense of smell and agility are highly valuable for locating missing soldiers or finding injured personnel in difficult terrains.

How are German Shepherds trained for police work?

Training German Shepherds for police work involves teaching them a variety of skills like tracking, scent detection, protection, and searching.

They begin their training with basic obedience commands and gradually move to more specialized tasks such as finding narcotics, detecting explosives, or searching for missing persons.

Their keen senses, high levels of focus, and willingness to learn make them ideal candidates for these rigorous training programs.

What are the primary responsibilities of German Shepherds in the police force?

In the police force, the primary responsibilities of German Shepherds include tasks like patrolling, searching premises, apprehending suspects and detecting illicit substances.

They are also sometimes involved in search and rescue operations, assisting in locating missing persons and recovering evidence.

Are German Shepherds still widely used in modern law enforcement?

Yes, German Shepherds are still widely used in modern law enforcement. Their versatility, loyalty, and intelligence make them a valuable asset for various police and military tasks.

Although other breeds, such as Belgian Malinois and Dutch Shepherds, are also becoming increasingly popular, German Shepherds remain a top choice for many law enforcement agencies.

How do German Shepherds contribute to the effectiveness of military units?

German Shepherds significantly contribute to the effectiveness of military units through their superior detection abilities, agility, and protectiveness.

Their presence can enhance the overall performance of a unit by aiding in tasks like locating explosives, finding injured members, or guarding facilities.

Further, their loyalty and bravery often help boost the morale of soldiers, providing emotional support during challenging situations.

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We love Frank, our German Shepherd - he's basically part of the family. But you know how it is - there are challenges and questions that every dog owner faces, so here's what I discovered about German Shepherds while raising him.

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11 Questions About German Shepherds, Answered

The German Shepherd Dog (GSD)—or simply ‘Shepherd’—consistently ranks among the top ten most popular breeds in America, second only to the number one Labrador Retriever since 2010. His unfailing loyalty and intelligence earn him this distinction, together with his majestic and imposing canine presence. Like all dogs, he comes with challenges, and as such may not make the best first dog for a novice. Are you ready for a German Shepherd ? Here are answers to 11 oft-asked questions about this rewarding, but occasionally difficult dog.

1. What kind of temperament do German Shepherds have—are they aggressive?

Although Shepherds are stereotyped as aggressive or out-of-control dogs, this idea lacks merit. One way to predict the general temperament of a German Shepherd Dog—or any dog—is understanding what he was bred to do. For the GSD, a dog originally developed for long days herding, you can expect intelligence, trainability, loyalty, and an impeccable work ethic, in a sound dog. And soundness is what the aggression question really boils down to—when a German Shepherd comes from good genetic stock, he’s likely to possess a sound temperament and a thoroughly endearing personality. But the GSD is also naturally protective, and may be trained to guard—an aptitude which has made him valuable historically and now, for police work and as a member of the armed forces . If you’re considering bringing home a German Shepherd, buy from a responsible breeder, or adopt from a rescue organization where temperament testing is routine, or where the dog has been in foster care long enough for a family to observe his demeanor, so you’ll have a better idea of where his personality falls along the continuum.

2. Were German Shepherds bred as police dogs?

No. German Shepherds emerged around the turn of the 20th century as sheep herding dogs in Germany, hence their name. But when industrialization rendered the GSD’s herding work a bit obsolete, the dog’s original developer—one Max von Stephanitz—began selecting for traits that catered more to police and military work. In time, after he observed a decline in the personality and health of the dog he worked so hard to develop, von Stephanitz brought the GSD back into alignment with his original standards. Still, the Shepherd had proved his moxie as a police dog and member of the military in the First World War, and he continues to shine in those roles, along with the exceptional work he does in search and rescue, bomb and drug detection, and as a service dog . He still makes a reliable helper with livestock on the farm or ranch, but is as happy to herd and watch over his human ‘siblings’ at home.

3. What are some common health problems in the German Shepherd?

Like all breeds, German Shepherds are prone to a few health problems, including these; consult a veterinarian to learn more.

• Canine hip dysplasia , a malformation in the hip joints where the femur does not fit properly into the hip’s acetabulum, can occur in German Shepherds and in most large dog breeds; genes and lifestyle can influence the likelihood of hip dysplasia in a GSD. Elbow dysplasia also occurs in Shepherds, but is genetic. Look for Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) certifications for hips and elbows in both parents of the dog you’re considering. Hip dysplasia in dogs is often manageable.
• Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency is a lack of digestive enzymes, and is relatively common in German Shepherds. Symptoms can include diarrhea and weight loss; EPI is potentially life-threatening, but responds well to treatment once it’s diagnosed.
• Pancreatitis , or inflammation of the pancreas, can occur in German Shepherds—pancreatitis can be an isolated event, or a chronic problem. A dog who is fed an especially high-fat meal when he’s unaccustomed to it is most vulnerable; symptoms include a loss of appetite, vomiting, and belly pain, among others. Pancreatitis is manageable, and the prognosis for a dog who has it is good.
• Bloat , or gastric torsion, can be a problem in a German Shepherd, or in any deep-chested dog. During bloat, the dog’s stomach twists, preventing food from passing through the esophagus to the stomach, or through the stomach to the intestines. Consider bloat an emergency: If your Shepherd’s abdomen is enlarged, his breathing labored, he is drooling excessively, vomiting, or has a weak pulse or paleness in the nose and mouth, get him to the veterinarian immediately for treatment. Keeping your shepherd calm about an hour before and after a meal can reduce the chances of bloat.
• Degenerative Myelopathy is a progressive degeneration of the spinal cord triggered by the autoimmune system, and is seen in Shepherds; it begins in the dog’s hind limbs, progressively weakens his entire body, and is ultimately fatal.

4. How long do German Shepherds live?

The life expectancy for German Shepherds is seven to twelve years. While generally a healthy breed, mobility or health issues may mean a shorter lifespan. Always choose a breeder who follows recommended breeding practices and screens for common conditions to reduce the likelihood of serious health concerns.

5. Will my German Shepherd puppy’s ears stand up on their own, or should I tape them?

Most German Shepherd puppies’ ears stand erect naturally, after teething ends. But until then, a puppy’s ears may stand erect one day, droop down the next, and then stand erect again, for as many as six months—it’s best not to do anything to your puppy’s ears during this period. Some people try to coax the ears to stand erect by taping them (they should never be surgically cropped, as they are in a Doberman Pinscher). Taping occasionally helps the GSD puppy develop erect ears, but many times fails, especially if taped incorrectly. And some Shepherds are born with genetically weak, or ‘soft’ ears, that may never stand fully erect. Unless you’re planning to show your dog, it’s best to make your peace with his ears, however imperfect—a dog with one ear up and one down, or partially erect ears with floppy tips, will win you over with his loveable looks.

6. How much do German Shepherds shed?

German Shepherds shed copiously. Their propensity to shed, in fact, has earned them the moniker, German ‘Shedder.’ The GSD has a beautiful and luxurious double coat that comes in a medium or long variety. The topcoat, or guard hair, sheds year-round. And twice yearly, in the spring and fall, the German Shepherd ‘blows’—or heavily sheds—his undercoat. Keep your vacuum in good working order, and thoroughly brush your Shepherd once weekly to help minimize the mess. ‘Fringe’ benefit: Pitch out a few handfuls of your Shepherd’s castoff hair and watch the spring robins around your yard pluck it up to insulate their nests.

7. When do German Shepherds stop growing?

Maximum physical growth for German Shepherds is usually reached between 2 and 2.5 years of age, and sometimes longer. Don’t be alarmed if your puppy seems to be outgrowing your space at a furious pace: Like all breeds, GSDs go through growth and development stages where they reach common social and physical milestones, with the most noticeable growth periods occurring before puppies turn one. After a year, growth slows—but continues—for up to two more years. Guidelines for GSD growth stages can give you an idea of what to expect, but each dog will develop on their own schedule.

Even if your German Shepherd is full-grown physically, mental maturity takes longer—closer to the three-year mark. This means grown-up, full-strength Shepherds may exude rambunctious, puppy-like energy. Provide plenty of exercise, games, and training to keep an active German Shepherd on his best behavior.

8. How fast can a German Shepherd run?

Nimble German Shepherds can sprint briefly at a top speed of 30 miles per hour or run at a sustained speed of up to 15 miles per hour, sometimes for an hour or longer. Whether they’re herding, working, or playing, that’s nothing to sniff at. Keep their top speed in mind as you’re out wandering: A startled or distracted GSD may be impossible to catch if he decides to take off running. Perfect the emergency recall command during training, and ensure he’s willing to stick close beside you before allowing any off-leash roaming, especially in unfamiliar areas.

9. How much should you feed a German Shepherd puppy?

Growing puppies should be fed based on their ideal weight, activity level, and stage of development: A veterinarian can recommend the best diet to meet a Shepherd puppy’s specific caloric needs. Split the total amount of food between four daily meals for a young puppy, and two or three meals as he gets older. A 20-pound puppy usually needs less than two cups of food per day, while a 50-pound, six-month-old German Shepherd may eat up to three and a half cups per day. Ensuring a well-balanced diet can help prevent excessive weight gain or obesity, which can impact overall health.

10. Are German Shepherds smart?

German Shepherds are intelligent, highly trainable dogs. They’re considered the third-smartest breed, according to a study that ranked intelligence based on each breed’s ability to learn and obey commands. Because they’re so smart, training is imperative. Without a solid foundation and continued training, your German Shepherd may spend his time outsmarting you rather than obeying.

One way to keep a GSD happy and thriving is to give him a job to do. Whether he keeps an eye on your backyard farm, competes in agility or advanced obedience, throws his nose into the ring for scent work games, or participates in search and rescue training, he needs activities to exercise his body and mind.

11. Do German Shepherds like water?

Many German Shepherds love water. Whether you live on the water or spend weekends dipping your toes in local streams, this athletic breed may be quick to join you for a dip. While not bred specifically for swimming like the Poodle or Water Spaniel, the German Shepherd is a hardy, muscular dog: Strong legs and a sleek, lean body give him an edge in the water. 

If he’s hesitant to give the doggy paddle a try, get in the water with him, take it slow, and allow him time to learn the ropes. With patience and practice, he may learn to love the water. Not all Shepherds enjoy water—if yours decides he’d rather stay dry, opt for a few rounds of fetch on the shore instead. Find out more about the German Shepherd Dog—or any dog—before you buy or adopt. And try our Dog Breed Selector to discover the specific breeds that may best match your lifestyle—your next canine family member is out there waiting for you.

8 thoughts on “11 Questions About German Shepherds, Answered”

Thank you. Very helpful info. Love our GSD, and looking to get a GSD puppy soon

I will get German shepherd in Canada if I will pack in my bedroom to leave home and I will find a house to live in next my high school and I will live with my my head coach is Steven carrareto

I have along hair GSD black mouth and black coat with tan feet. He is wonderful and so easy to train

Such a nice and informative article. The German Shepherd Dogs are amazing. They hold a variety of wonderful characteristics such as intelligence, alert, watchful, curious, obedient, courageous, and confident. Click Here

These questions are so much helpful so many others like me. https://www.nomnomnow.one/

I have 3 GSD, 1 shortcoat and 2 longcoat, they are just part of my family, intelligent, brave and protective. The QnA was educative

Does anyone’s GSD have skin issues? Hot spots, scratching etc.? If so, have you had any luck with a treatment? Thanks and Merry Christmas!

Hey, I have a German shepherd dog, 5 month old, he is not aggressive, when he saw a stranger, he started playing with them, I’m worried about his behaviour, will he became aggressive & how?

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Pet Ownership: Should we even have pets?      Pets: Is It Ethical to Keep Them?        Pet pooches good for your mental health.

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Inertial properties of the German Shepherd Dog

O. yvette jones.

1 Centre for Applied Research and Innovation, British Columbia Institute of Technology, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada

2 Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom

Silvia U. Raschke

Philip e. riches, associated data.

All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

One of the most popular dog breeds deployed by both the police and military has been the German Shepherd yet little is known about the morphology or body segment parameters of this breed. Such measures are essential for developing biomechanical models which, in turn, may guide clinicians in developing surgical interventions, injury treatment and prevention procedures. This paper provides a complete set of body segment parameters and inertial properties for the German Shepherd. Morphometric measures and 3-dimensional inertial properties, including mass, centre of mass, moment of inertia and volume, were measured from 17 segments from 6 German Shepherd police service dog cadavers. Using whole body mass and geometric modelling, 11 regression equations were developed for predicting segment masses, and 33 equations were developed for predicting moments of inertia. Using these data, inverse dynamic analyses may be applied in future investigations of canine mechanics, guiding surgical procedures, rehabilitation and training especially for the German Shepherd breed but potentially for other breeds too.

Introduction

Before 1890 police dogs had no formal training and were used primarily as trackers or as guard dogs. However, by 1895 both Belgium and France successfully began training dogs to work with police on foot patrol. By the First World War the breed was serving as medical service dogs, sentinels, trackers, messengers, supply carriers and guard dogs [ 1 , 2 ]. Today, the German Shepherd is arguably the most popular breed of dog deployed in police work and in the military with 112 teams within the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) alone.

Considerable expense is placed attaining and maintaining police dog teams, and they become significantly more costly if a dog becomes injured, not only due to veterinary fees but the department also loses a canine team until the dog is back in service. Knowledge of canine veterinary musculoskeletal disease and surgical techniques has seen significant developments however evaluation of functional outcomes are still primarily subjective and based on the experience and observational skills of the clinician. As with humans and horses, certain conditions will present with different biomechanical signatures, opening up the possibility that an objective clinical gait evaluation would be a useful diagnostic tool for characterizing gait [ 3 – 5 ]. Dynamic analysis of limb movements requires the input of morphometric data, commonly referred to as body segment parameters (BSPs), which typically include segment dimensions, mass, centre of mass (CoM), inertial tensors and segment density or volume. Such data are essential for input into a linked segment model so that forces and moments specific to each joint may be obtained.

The importance of BSPs to the study of human motion and ergonomics has been known since 1681 [ 6 ]. Direct measurements of sample populations can be taken via cadaver segmentation [ 7 – 9 ] or from living subjects through the use of scanning methods (γ-ray, CT, MRI) [ 10 ] and geometrical modelling based on anatomical measures [ 11 ]. The greatest benefit to using cadaver segmentation for determining BSPs is that it permits direct measurements of an individual segment’s mass, volume, CoM, and moments of inertia (MoI), quantities that express an object’s resistance to angular acceleration about three orthogonal axes. Therefore, this method should be considered “gold standard” in comparison to other less direct methods which involve assumptions pertaining to tissue density and segment geometry.

Many kinematic [ 4 , 12 – 14 ] and kinetic [ 15 – 17 ] studies have described gait characteristics of dogs, with some including inverse dynamics to determine joint force, torques and powers [ 18 – 20 ] however these have not included the contribution of segment inertial properties [ 21 ]. Editorials on canine research state that there is a lack of body segment parameter data [ 22 ] and a “…need to develop a database of accurate limb segment morphometric descriptions for specific (dog) breeds, and accumulate a database of normal, breed-specific joint kinetics….” [ 23 ]. Full and partial equine BSP data exist [ 24 – 28 ], whilst canine 2D BSP data have been determined from cadavers from mixed-breed dogs [ 29 , 30 ] and BSP data exist for the hind limb of Labrador Retrievers [ 31 ]. The only complete set of 3D BSP data have been obtained through MRI on three mixed breed dogs separated into 15 segments [ 32 ]. To enable extrapolation to other dogs, the CoM was normalised to the length of the segment and MoI normalised by the square of the segment length [ 32 – 34 ]. No full 3D data set exists for the dog based on cadaveric segmentation and, despite the importance of the German Shepherd in the emergency and public services of many countries, no specific data exist for this breed, with the exception of the skull, e.g. [ 35 ].

It is hypothesized that body segment parameters and 3-dimensional inertial properties for the dog may be directly measured from cadaveric specimens. This study aims to measure and record segment morphometry, masses, CoMs, inertial tensors and volumes of German Shepherd dogs. Based on these data, regression equations are determined for the estimation of segment inertial properties for other German Shepherds and potentially other large dog breeds.

Materials and methods

The RCMP uses only purebred German Shepherds for their general duty teams. On rare occasion a dog dies suddenly due to unforeseen conditions or illness, or must be euthanized due to an accident, medical or behavioural issues. The RCMP supported this research by donating these dogs so that they may one day assist in promoting the health and rehabilitation of future dogs. Upon getting word that a dog had become available, the researchers would collect the dog from the attending veterinarian. Written informed consent was obtained: participants were provided with full disclosure of the study, including; the purpose, data collection methods and confidentiality procedures and were informed that they were free to withdraw from the study at any time. The study team, in 2006 at the outset of the study, approached the Canadian Council on Animal Care and the University of British Columbia Animal Care Committee and asked them to review the study. Both granted a waiver, in accordance with ethical guidelines at the time, their reason being that animals were recruited post mortem and no animal was specifically euthanised for the study.

Morphometry and inertial measurements were collected from five purebred German Shepherds from January 2007 to March 2009, with a sixth dog added in February 2014. The dogs were required to be at least 2 years of age and, to ascertain muscle mass, to either be on active duty at time of death or retired but still active, as reported by their handler. Exclusion criteria included: dogs exhibiting congenital or traumatic abnormalities, structural atrophy, excessive weight loss or obesity. Of seven potential dogs, six male dogs fulfilled these criteria, with one dog declined inclusion due to significant physical injury. The dogs had with a mean age of 4.75 years (range 2 to 8.5 years) and a mean body mass of 36.8 kg (range 34.29 to 39.41 kg).

Preliminary measures and freezing

Similar to previous research [ 36 – 38 ], morphometric dimensions were recorded and selected landmarks identified and marked on the skin prior to freezing. The dogs were not shaved so as not to affect segment mass. Dogs were placed in a neutral stance position via a custom harness and frame. Since no standard anatomical neutral position has been established for the dog, the selection of “neutral position” was loosely based on the relaxed four-footed stance with tail down, mouth closed and right and left sides placed symmetrical. Dogs were frozen at -18°C for a minimum of 48 hours to extend the handling time and to form a rigid body for subsequent measurements.

Segmentation and segment definitions

Each frozen cadaver was divided into 17 segments ( Fig 1 ). All cuts passed through the estimated instantaneous joint centre of rotation, similarly identified and demonstrated by for humans [ 7 , 9 ], for horses [ 26 , 28 ] and for dogs [ 39 , 40 ]. Cuts were made using a battery powered reciprocating saw, a hand saw and an electric cast cutter (Stryker 9002–210). Lost tissue was weighed for inclusion in the summation of segment masses. Upon dissection, segments were weighed, photographed, and placed in tightly sealed plastic freezer bags to control dehydration and returned to the freezer.

With the head at approximately 125 degrees to the cervical spine, separation of the head from the neck passed along a plane tangent to the midpoint between the external occipital protuberance and the cranial point of the spinous process of the axis (keeping the ears intact) and the right and left paracondylar processes.

Neck/thorax

With the cervical spine at approximately 150 degrees to the thoracic spine, separation of the neck from the thorax passed along a plane tangent to the greater tubercle of the humerus and the cranial border of the scapula on the right and left sides.

Brachium/thorax

Due to the difficulty of achieving a clean separation, the scapula was included as part of the thorax. Separation of the brachium from the thorax required a compound cut; the first was on the underside of the brachium following the axial crease upward along the thorax to the humeral head, the second ran across from the greater tubercle of the humerus, tangent to the midline between the acromion and humeral head to the apex of the axial crease.

Brachium/antebrachium

The brachium was separated from the antebrachium along a plane passing through the medial and lateral humeral epicondyles and a point at the crease of the elbow. Note that, in stance, the flexure surface of the brachium is approximately 145 degrees relative to the antebrachium, causing the olecranon tuber to be partially bisected within the brachial segment.

Antebrachium/manus

The antebrachium was separated from the manus along a plane tangent to the radial and ulnar styloid processes and the accessory carpal bone, keeping it intact. The cranial surface of the antebrachium is approximately 170 degrees relative to the manus.

Thorax/abdomen

On observation, the canine thorax can rotate separately from the abdomen, particularly if changing direction while running however there are few studies documenting the specific movement of the thoracic spine in relation to the lumbar spine [ 41 – 43 ]. It was decided that the thorax and abdomen would be measured separately in order to provide an opportunity for future investigation in this area. The plane of separation of the thorax from the abdomen was made tangent to the midpoint between T13 and L1 spinous processes and the midpoint between the xyphoid process and the umbilicus.

Abdomen/thigh

The separation of the thigh from the abdomen required a compound cut. The caudal plane passed from the point of the ischial tuberosity to the femoral head at the ventral edge of the acetabulum. The cranial plane passed diagonally from the apex of the thigh crease to the most dorsal projection of the greater trochanter, through the femoral head to the acetabulum to meet the first cut.

Similar to brachium/antebrachium, the separation of the crus from the thigh passed along a plane bisecting through the femoral condyles at the proximal attachments of the collateral ligaments and a point at the crease at the back of the stifle joint with the stifle flexed at approximately 100 degrees.

Separation of the pes from the crus was made with the pes flexed at 95 degrees to the crus. The cut plane passed just distal to the lateral and medial malleoli and tangent to the dorso-caudal edge of the calcaneus.

Abdomen/tail

The tail was removed along a plane separating the sacrum from the first caudal vertebra.

Experimental procedures

Whole body mass was measured prior to dissection using a Bertec 4060–10 strain-gauge-based force plate (Bertec Corporation, Columbus, OH, USA). Segment mass measures were completed directly using a Mettler Dual Range Precision Balance. The balance has a capacity of 32100g and is accurate to 0.1g for measures below 6400g, 1.0g for measures over 6400g. (Mettler Toledo Canada, Mississauga, ON, CA). To monitor any loss of mass due to sublimation [ 44 ], segment masses were taken at three separate instances: immediately upon dissection, again approximately 1–2 days later at the same time inertial properties were taken, and a third time approximately 1 week later when volumetric measures were completed. An average of the 3 measures was taken for use in inertial calculations.

3-D coordinate system

The irregular shape of the segments prompted the creation of a segment holder similar to those used in previous studies [ 8 , 36 ]. The boxes were constructed of Styrofoam, affording thermal isolation, and optimally sized to fit each segment as closely as possible. Each of the boxes were marked with six axes: xx, yy, zz, xy, xz and yz axes where xy, xz and yz are axes coplanar but nonparallel to xx, yy and zz (for full detail see [ 8 ]). Using foam saddles and tape, each frozen segment was securely positioned in the box such that box xx, yy and zz axes defined a segment’s coordinate system ( Fig 2A ), with the yy axis for all segments corresponding to the flexion/extension axis and oriented right to left for all segments except the crus. Note that for ease of measurement procedures during the experiment it was necessary to reverse the orientation of the right brachium hence its axes are also reversed ( Fig 2B ).

(a) Segment axis orientation established by the segment holder; (b) right brachium axes.

MoI for each segment was measured using the simple pendulum method [ 36 ]. Using strings attached to connectors on the box wall, the each box was suspended from a rigid A-frame; the abdomen and thorax were suspended directly using 27 kg rated stainless steel wire. The segment holder was swung in the vertical plane and the period of oscillation, length of pendulum and mass of the segment were recorded. A Vicon MX motion capture system (Vicon, Oxford, UK) recorded the period of oscillation for the box and the mean taken over 3 successive trials. MoIs were measured about the 6 box axes with and without the segment in situ. The MoIs about the xx, yy and zz axes provided the MoIs of each segment around the axes identified in Fig 2 . Subtracting the known mechanical properties of each empty box (mass, CoM, MoI) from the composite (box plus segment), the MoI for each segment about its CoM was then calculated as follows:

Where the subscript c refers to the composite box, subscript b refers to the empty box and subscript s refers to the segment.

Product MoI were calculated as follows [ 8 , 24 , 28 ]:

where I x y * is the MoI about the box’s xy axis; l the length of the pendulum; and θ is the angle formed by the intersection of the yy and xy axes. I xz and I yz are calculated in a similar manner. CoMs were determined by balancing the segment box on a knife edge in the three axes.

A total of 100 morphometric dimensions were gathered from each dog: total body mass, 23 separate measures for the forelimbs, 33 for the hind limbs, and 43 for the rest of the body. To assess repeatability, multiple sets of measures were conducted on select dimensions prior to segmentation and approximately one week later after segmentation. Paired-sample t-tests were conducted to confirm no significant differences existed between measurement sets taken at the different times of the study. Significant differences (p < .05) between a compared pair resulted in the measure being excluded from the model.

Regression analyses

Regression equations were created from whole body mass and geometric modelling using morphometric dimensions to predict segment masses and MoIs. Different morphometric dimensions were used in a variety of non-linear regression equations, based on different assumed segment geometric shapes, to determine which function best correlated to the segment parameter. The geometries tested included: a cylinder, a rectangular pyramid, a cone, a conical frustum, and an ellipsoid. Left and right sides were combined to provide n = 12 for this analysis.

Morphometry and body segment parameters

At the start of the research it was unknown which data would provide the best regression correlations therefore a variety of dimensions were evaluated based on currently used human models, animal studies as well as on geometric shapes. Segment data were averaged across all dogs: Table 1 summarizes segment masses (normalized to body mass), CoMs, densities and volumes; Table 2 presents the calculated MoI. There was no loss of segment mass over storage time due to sublimation and tissue loss due to cut waste was 182g or 0.49% of total body mass per dog. This was considered negligible.

Regression correlations

Correlations to geometric shape were applied using a variety of combinations of the dimension. When tested separately, results for the right and left limbs were significant for many of the applied combinations. The number of significant correlations were drastically reduced when the combined right and left MoI data were compared with the models. Multiple regression correlations of body mass and geometric model produced much better results and so it was this approach that was used for the majority of the correlations. Regression equations for predicting segment masses and MoIs, along with their R 2 values, are given in Tables ​ Tables3, 3 , ​ ,4 4 and ​ and5 5 .

This investigation offers, for the first time, a complete set of experimental data on the mass and inertial properties of the adult male German Shepherd dog. To date, there has been only one other study that has provided a set such as this, using MRI to indirectly extract body segment data for 3 dogs of mixed breeds [ 32 ]. In comparison, by using 6 dogs of the same breed, gender and occupation, our study provides a larger, more homogenous set of data. Moreover, our direct measures of body segment parameters do not need any density assumptions, indeed, we actually determine density as a by-product of our method. The segmentation methods used for current study are similar to those used for the study of mixed breeds except here the tail has been removed and presented as a separate segment and, due to the flexibility of the spine, the trunk has been divided into abdomen and thorax segments so that they may better represent trunk movement.

A comparison of relative mass distribution between the two studies produced similar findings for % body mass and location of CoM. The major difference was in the CoM of the head, which was found to be located 10% more rostral than that of German Shepherds. While the study does not state what breed the dogs were, it was noted that the head of the smallest dog was slightly brachycephalic (flat, wide skull shape) which may have been the source of the variation. Excluding the skull, CoM locations varied between 1.5 and 4.4%, with an average variation of 3.5%. In comparing segment masses normalized to % body mass, again, results were comparable with the greatest variation occurring at the head. The heads of the German Shepherds were found to be an average of 7.7% of body mass compared to an average of 9.2% of body mass for the three mixed breed dogs. Of the remaining segments, corresponding segment masses within the 2 studies varied between 0.08 and 0.39% with an average variation of 0.11%. One other study used CT scans to determine inertial properties for the hind limb of 14 clinically normal Labrador retrievers [ 31 ]. Average segment masses were within 0.1% of those recorded here for the pes and crus segments, however the thigh of the Labrador Retriever was found to be 1.5% heavier than that of the German Shepherd. Location of CoM was found to be 4.4, 5.6.and 2.6% more proximal for the pes, crus and thigh, respectively for the Retriever. These differences are relatively small but show potential differences that could be attributed to breed.

The wide variety of morphometric measures used for the regression analyses facilitated segment-specific equations to be determined and strong correlations to be realised. As an example, elbow circumference worked well as a factor for estimating the mass of the brachium segment, however the carpus circumference correlated better for estimating the mass of antebrachium segment. Models for estimating segment mass did not always work for estimating MoI for the same segment, e.g. the neck was best modelled as a cylinder for estimating segment mass, but as a frustum for estimating its MoI.

One problem with using frozen cadavers was the angle of extension in the limbs. Care was taken to ensure each cadaver was sufficiently suspended in stance in the freezer with paws planted. Excessive flexion, for example, could affect underlying bone and tissue position and thereby cause variation in segment mass and circumference. As previously noted [ 36 ], MoI is not significantly affected by small errors in mass, however dimensional errors could contribute inaccuracy to the system. A tall dog that has reached the height capacity of the freezer, one who has reached rigor mortise early or any slippage in the suspension mechanism during freezing could introduce such errors. As a result, left and right sided segments were not averaged for each dog but instead were treated as separate segments. Errors in length, in particular the length from the pivot of the pendulum system to the CoM of the box/specimen could also render inaccuracies. To minimize these errors, the length of the pendulum from the frame pivot to the box was measured by a set spacer of known length. The length from the exterior of the box to the CoM of the segment was calculated from 3-dimensional measures taken from the box origin. To avoid possibility of error due to settling, the pendulum length was remeasured after each successive trial. Care was also taken to ensure the assumptions of the simple pendulum was maintained, i.e. the box rotated about the pivot and not from the box/string juncture.

Another potential source for error lay in the dissection of the thigh and brachium, the anatomy of which made it necessary to complete both with compound cuts. The limited abduction range at the shoulder made it difficult to manoeuvre the cut blade in the axial area, while thick muscle mass of the inner thigh and the proximity of the ischium provided limited access to the joint, increasing the opportunity for error.

The greatest benefit to using cadaver segmentation for determining BSPs is that it permits direct measurements of mass, volume, CoM and MoI for individual segments. That being said, as with less invasive means of extracting BSP data, the method has its limitations, the most common being small sample size, as was the case here. Due to a limited supply of sources, most investigations involving cadavers have a small number of specimens and the figures obtained from these populations cannot be used indiscriminately, rather they should be used to examine like groups [ 18 ]. It is therefore important that researchers understand how the BSPs were derived and on which populations they may appropriately use them in biomechanical modelling [ 9 , 45 ].

In comparison to medical imaging, cadaveric segmentation permitted the most direct, cost effective method of measuring moments of inertia, volume and mass, the drawback being that density must be assumed uniform for each segment. Knowledge of the location of various tissue components gained through use of imaging techniques would likely increase the predictive ability of the regression model. For example, a segment may be modelled as a hollow cylinder of bone surrounded by soft tissue, each having a known density.

While freezing the cadaver limits loss of tissue and fluids, it’s important to keep in mind that the inertial properties for each segment are only accurate for the position in which it was frozen. Changes in muscle diameter and position through movement would cause variations in the inertial properties, however since a dynamic MoI measure is not yet possible, the static measure is an acceptable representation.

Despite the small sample size, good correlations were found for the inertial properties of the segments, and these data provide a full set of biomechanical segment parameters for the German Shepherd dog. With caution, they may also be applied to other dog breeds of similar stature, such as the Golden Retriever or Malinois or in the absence of breed-specific data. In a breed-specific study comparing Greyhounds to Labrador Retrievers, kinematic patterns greatly differed, likely due to differences in pelvic mechanics [ 18 ]. It is also important to note that when performing an objective gait analysis on dogs, for quantitative gait analysis to be comparable between dogs, within dogs, between sides (i.e. left and right) and between fore and hind limbs, they must be traveling at a constant velocity in a symmetrical gait such as the trot [ 46 – 48 ]. Even within the trot there is some speed-related variation in kinematic pattern [ 16 ] therefore it’s possible that a treadmill-based design may afford greater control over the stride velocity than that of over-ground trotting. Future studies are needed to determine whether mass distribution over individual segments is consistent between dogs of different breeds and sizes. It is hoped that in time, the movement patterns produced by gait model may reflect compensatory behaviour that would otherwise be difficult to interpret to the untrained observer. In summary, an objective gait analysis including detailed joint mechanics could augment as a clinical diagnostic tool for identifying pathologies associated with gait anomalies such as this, impacting future evaluations of musculoskeletal disorders and therapeutics [ 15 ].

Supporting information

Acknowledgments.

Canada West Veterinary Specialists and Canadian Diagnostics are gratefully acknowledged for donation of CT services and technical expertise. The authors would also like to thank the Vancouver Police Department and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police for support of this research. Technical assistance provided by Dr. David Kenyon was also greatly appreciated.

Funding Statement

This study was financially supported by the Vancouver Police Foundation and the British Columbia Institute of Technology Super PD Fund.

Data Availability

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How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

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What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

• Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
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The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

• Why you hold this position
• What they’ll learn from your essay
• The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

• In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
• In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

College essays

• Choosing Essay Topic
• Write a College Essay
• Write a Diversity Essay
• College Essay Format & Structure
• Comparing and Contrasting in an Essay

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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

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Developing an Outline for a Compare and Contrast Essay

LESSON Compare and contrast essays A written discussion of both the similarities and differences between people, objects, or ideas. This type of essay shows how things are alike in some ways (compare) as well as how they are different in other ways (contrast). are a common assignment in college. You may be asked to compare To draw similarities between people, objects, or concepts. two authors A person who wrote a text. , two methods for ratifying Constitutional amendments, or two events. No matter what you compare, it is helpful to develop an outline A preliminary plan for a piece of a writing, often in the form of a list. It should include a topic, audience, purpose, thesis statement, and main and supporting points. . In this lesson, you will learn how to identify subjects The people, places, things, or ideas being discussed or described. to compare, develop points of comparison The criteria by which subjects are compared and/or contrasted. , and choose the best organizational strategy A plan for arranging the structure of an outline or essay. There are many different strategies, such as point-by-point, subject-by-subject, or order of events. for your outline.

Determining Subjects Worthy of Comparison

While it is theoretically possible to compare any two people, places, events, ideas, etc., it would not make sense to compare Mark Twain with a wind turbine. Worthy subjects should at least be part of a similar class of things and they should also have enough in common with each other that the comparison makes sense.

• Apples versus fruit: This comparison does not make sense because apples are a type of fruit.
• Apples versus oranges: This is a better comparison because they are both types of fruit.

Developing Points of Comparison to Support a Thesis

Once you have determined the two subjects that you will compare, you will need to decide what criteria The standards or rules used to decide or judge something. you will use to compare the two. These are your points of comparison. Be sure that you can actually evaluate To make a judgment about the quality of something. For example, you can evaluate an essay by examining the accuracy of the information or the strength of the arguments. each subject by the criteria that you choose.

You could begin this process of developing your points of comparison by using any one of a number of graphic organizers Pictorial tools used to brainstorm and arrange ideas before writing, such as webbing diagrams, flow charts, story maps, and Venn diagrams. , such as a web diagram A prewriting technique where the author creates an informal visual layout of possible ideas and then draws lines to connect them into a type of "web." The objective is to see connections between events and characters. . Another way is to simply brainstorm A prewriting technique where the author lists multiple ideas as he or she thinks of them, not considering one more than another until all ideas are captured. The objective is to create one great idea, or many ideas, on which to base a writing. everything you know or have learned about each subject individually. Then you can look for common points of comparison.

Here is an example that compares apples to oranges.

Based on this initial brainstorming, the two fruits could be compared on any of the following:

• Texture (both inside and out)
• Availability
• Growing location
• Health benefits
• Recipes where they can be used

With additional research and thought, more comparisons could be found. Keep in mind, you must always be certain that you are making parallel Using the same pattern of words to describe ideas in order to create balance in a writing. Parallel structure can be at the word-, phrase-, clause-, sentence-, and even paragraph-level. comparisons. If you are describing the taste and color of apples, then make sure you are doing the same for oranges, rather than focusing on taste and texture.

Organizing a Compare and Contrast Essay

There are two major ways to organize a compare and contrast essay: point-by-point An organizational strategy for a comparison or compare and contrast essay. In this method, the writer lists the major points of comparison/contrast between subjects, and discusses them one at a time. A point-by-point comparison is useful for subjects that have many points of comparison because the reader can consider both subjects side-by-side. or subject-by-subject An organizational strategy for a comparison or compare and contrast essay. In this method, a single subject is discussed in detail, followed by a similar examination of the other subject. A subject-by-subject comparison is best used for less complex arguments that have fewer points, so that the reader can remember the points made about the first subject while learning about the second. . A point-by-point comparison is useful for complicated subjects that have many points of comparison because your reader can view both subjects side-by-side with each point of comparison. However, be sure to keep the essay flowing when using this method. Point-by-point comparisons tend to read like a ping pong match if you switch too quickly between points (ex. point A, point B, point A, point B). Make sure to use effective transitions Tying two events, passages, or pieces of information together in a smooth way. In writing, transitions are sometimes called links. to avoid this "back and forth" feeling. Conversely, a subject-by-subject comparison is better reserved for less complex subjects that have fewer points. This method is naturally more cohesive, but it can be light on content if you are not monitoring how much support you develop.

Point-by-point outline

• Subject A (Evidence)
• Subject B (Evidence)
• Link to next paragraph
• Final impression

*Analysis could go after each subject (evidence) in the paragraph, or come after both as shown above.

Here is an example of a point-by-point outline.

German Shepherds and Golden Retrievers

• Hook: According to the American Kennel Club, golden retrievers and German shepherds have both been among the top three most popular dog breeds in the United States.
• Tone: Informal
• Background: Their popularity stems, in part, from their shared intelligence and ability to serve and keep company.
• Thesis: Despite sharing these characteristics, German shepherds and golden retrievers are very different breeds, and potential owners must understand these differences to ensure they choose the breed best suited to their homes.
• Intelligent
• Keen sense of smell
• Aggressive; fearless
• Over-protective if not socialized properly
• Territorial
• Do not care for strangers
• Work without being distracted
• Eager to please
• Naturally sociable
• Willing to learn
• Patient with children
• Poor guard dogs
• Not aggressive to people or other animals
• Analysis: Families must be aware of a breed's disposition before bringing a dog into their home. Families who are unprepared to properly socialize a dog should think twice before adopting a German shepherd.
• Link to next paragraph: While temperament is one consideration, families should also consider how the two breeds differ physically.
• Generally tan with black back and snout; also black, white, sable, liver, and blue varieties
• Range from 50-90 pounds and 22 to 26 inches in height
• Need thirty minutes of exercise a day
• Not prone to ear infections
• Good swimmers
• Range from gold to cream in color
• Range from 60 to 75 pounds and 21-24 inches in height
• Need two or more hours of exercise a day
• Prone to ear infections
• Analysis: Both breeds are excellent choices for active people as they both enjoy going for hikes and runs, but golden retrievers are a better option for those interested in a dog that can accompany them on their marathon training runs.
• Link to next paragraph: In addition to temperament and physical characteristics, potential dog owners also need to consider the care each breed requires.
• Do not need ears cleaned often because they are not prone to ear infections
• Need regular bathing and brushing
• Need grooming once a week
• Analysis: Golden retrievers may not be the best choice for those with limited time and funds because their care will take significant time and money.
• Link to next paragraph: It may take some time and research, but eventually you will discover if either of these breeds would make a welcome addition to your family.
• Synthesis: With their different personalities and needs, German shepherds and golden retrievers are both great dogs that you should consider when you are looking to add a furry friend to your family.
• Final impression: Consider dog sitting or visiting both of these breeds in your local shelter to figure out if either of these breeds will be a good fit for your family.

The second way you could organize your outline is subject-by-subject, as in this approach:

Subject-by-subject outline

• Point of comparison 1 (Evidence)
• Point of comparison 2 (Evidence)
• Point of comparison 3 (Evidence)

*Analysis could go after each point of comparison (evidence) in the paragraph, or come after all three as shown above.

Here is an example of the same information about German shepherds and golden retrievers, reorganized to reflect subject-by-subject organization.

• Background: Their popularity stems, in part, from their intelligence and ability to serve and keep company.
• Analysis: German shepherds are an excellent choice for people who have the ability to properly socialize their dogs. They are an excellent choice for people who do not have hours to spend playing and walking a dog or the money needed to care for an animal that requires frequent visits to the vet or groomer.
• Link to next paragraph: If your lifestyle is not well-suited to care for a German shepherd, it may be better suited to care for a golden retriever.
• Analysis: In many ways, golden retrievers take more care than a German shepherd; however, that should not be your only criteria because their friendliness is infectious and may be best for your family and neighborhood.

Notice how information is grouped by individual subject, rather than points of comparison, as in the previous outline. Your introduction, thesis, and conclusion may stay the same, but not always.

Keep in mind that you may include the linking or transition sentence either at the end of the paragraph or at the beginning of the next paragraph to introduce the new idea. If the linking sentence is located near the beginning of the paragraph, it will serve as the topic sentence of the paragraph. It is also acceptable to include a mention of the new topic at both the end of the previous paragraph and at the beginning of the new one.

Note that it is particularly important with a subject-by-subject outline to make sure that you are comparing parallel points. It is very easy to lose track of what you discussed in the first subject when you are in the middle of discussing the second.

People make comparisons all of the time, without even thinking about it. Did you choose between two breakfast foods this morning? Did you have to select courses for your next term at school? We are always considering the characteristics of two or more things and the possible outcomes of choosing one over the other. Becoming skilled at making parallel comparisons helps lead to better critical analysis, and ultimately to better choices.

Below are some pairs of possible subjects for a compare and contrast essay.

A) exercising versus walking

B) exercising versus reading

C) walking versus running

Which of these pairings is appropriate for a compare and contrast essay? "Walking" is a form of "exercising," so that is not a good pairing. "Exercising versus reading" is very broad. There are far too many points of comparison and contrast to be made. The last option, "walking versus running," offers the best pairing. There are multiple points of comparison that could be made: equipment needed, health benefits, physical requirements, etc.

Here is what a point-by-point outline might look like for this topic:

Walking and Running for Exercise

• Hook: Today's athletes might be surprised that the earliest runners did so while nude. As uncomfortable as that sounds, running is a great way to keep healthy, clothes or no clothes.
• Background: To increase health, commit to a regular workout routine.
• Thesis: Recent studies show that walking also offers similar benefits.
• Subject A: Walking: at least twice as long as running.
• Subject B: Running: tends to be half as long as walking.
• Analysis: Walking definitely takes more time to get the same benefits as running.
• Link to next paragraph: Even though it may take more time, there are benefits to walking that make it preferable to running.
• Lower incidence of age-related cataracts
• Lower incidence of high blood pressure, high cholesterol, heart disease, and diabetes
• Runners are thinner than walkers
• Produces appetite suppressing hormone
• Strains the immune system
• Puts more stress on the body
• Analysis: Walking can have a positive impact on some long-term health-related issues even though running has more immediate and noticeable benefits.
• Link to next paragraph: Walking and running both have their advantages, so maybe the choice should be made on which one you are more likely to do.
• Subject A: Walking: Walking faster lengthens life.
• Subject B: Running: Walking breaks reduce injury during running.
• Analysis: Both require effort, though to get the most out of walking, you must speed up and to run in the safest way, you must slow down.
• Link to next paragraph: Since both are beneficial to overall health, which one are you more likely to do?
• Synthesis: Many people think that walking won't be as beneficial as running, but in some instances it can actually be the better option.
• Final impression: Regardless of which one you choose, you should choose one because all health experts agree that regular physical activity makes for healthier living.

Here is that same information, organized as a subject-by-subject outline.

• Background: Recent studies show that walking also offers similar benefits.
• Thesis: Both walking and running are a great way to get in shape; however, one should understand the unique features of each before they choose between a running and walking regimen.
• At least twice as long as running
• Walking faster lengthens life
• Analysis: Walking has a positive impact, especially for people with the time to commit and other health risk factors.
• Link: Time is at a premium for most people, so maybe one can get the same benefits but in a shorter amount of time by running.
• Tends to be half as long as walking
• Walking breaks reduce injury
• Analysis: If the body can take it, running produces great immediate benefits
• Link: Even though some people may be attracted by the quick results produced by running, walking may be preferable to many depending on their current health status.

When you look at both outlines, you can see that they offer the same information, just organized in a different way.

A) evergreen trees (trees that stay green all year long) versus deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves in the fall)

B) evergreen trees versus Fraser firs

C) maple trees versus deciduous trees

The first pairing (A) is the best because evergreen and deciduous are the two major classifications of trees. The next two pairings do not work because Fraser firs are a type of evergreen tree and maple trees are a type of deciduous tree.

Now, develop your own outlines for a compare and contrast essay. You may use the example subjects above or choose your own two subjects to compare and contrast. Explain why your two subjects will offer good opportunities for comparing and contrasting. Then create both a subject-by-subject outline and a point-by-point outline for your subjects.

Sample Answer

I will compare evergreen and deciduous trees to choose which one to plant. This topic is appropriate because they are both classifications of trees; one loses its leaves during some part of the year and the other one does not. The topic is small enough to manage and offers multiple points of comparison.

Evergreen and Deciduous Trees

• Hook: If you are planting new trees in your yard, your first consideration may be whether to choose an evergreen or a deciduous tree.
• Background: Both provide shade and beauty, but they will function differently throughout the year.
• Thesis: To ensure that you will enjoy your tree at every stage of its long life, consider the strengths of both trees before you make your decision.
• Can serve as a "working tree."
• Can have wide canopies that provide large areas of shade.
• They will not block ground-level views.
• Can also serve as a "working tree."
• They provide privacy.
• They serve as sound barriers and windbreaks.
• Analysis: Deciduous trees may make more environmental sense because their shade cools your house in the summer and the lack of shade allows the sun to warm your house in the winter.
• Link to next paragraph: Deciduous trees will also last longer than most evergreens.
• Subject A: Deciduous trees will live longer than evergreen trees.
• Subject B: Evergreen trees are fast-growing, but will not live as long.
• Analysis: If you want mature trees quickly but have limited funds, evergreens may be a better choice because they will grow quickly.
• Link to next paragraph: However, before deciding which type of tree to purchase, you also need to consider their appearances.
• These lose their leaves in the winter.
• They often have beautiful seasonal changes in color and form.
• They provide more shade in summer.
• They provide more light and warmth in winter.
• Green color adds beauty to your yard.
• Their cool green contrasts with warm fall colors.
• They keep their bright color through winter.
• Analysis: Are you more interested in colorful fall foliage? Or do you enjoy retaining a lush green in the winter? The answer to this question will help you narrow down your tree choice.
• Link to next paragraph: Now you just have one more criteria to consider.
• Synthesis: Before you choose any tree, you need to understand what your needs are. If you need a tree to provide privacy quickly, an evergreen will be your best choice. However, if you want a tree that will shade you, flower, or turn red, orange, or yellow, look for a deciduous tree.
• Final impression: Remember that this is not necessarily an either-or choice. Depending upon your family's and yard's needs, you may end up planting a combination of deciduous and evergreen trees.
• They can serve as "working trees."
• They can serve as sound barriers.
• They can serve as windbreaks.
• They are fast-growing.
• They will not live as long as deciduous trees.
• Their color adds beauty to your yard.
• Analysis: Evergreens may be the best option for your yard if you have less money to spend as you can purchase a smaller tree that will reach full-size.
• Link: While evergreens have many great uses and grow quickly, deciduous trees may be more appropriate for your needs.
• They can also function as "working trees."
• Their wide canopies provide large areas of shade.
• They live longer than evergreen trees.
• They lose their leaves in the winter.
• You will enjoy their seasonal changes in color and form.
• Analysis: Deciduous trees take much longer to mature and may not be your first choice to fill out a bare landscape. However, they may make more environmental sense because their shade cools your house in the summer and the lack of shade allows the sun to warm your house in the winter.
• Link: Don’t forget that your family's and yard's needs should drive your choice in trees.
• Synthesis: Before you choose any tree, you need to understand what your needs are. If you need a tree to provide privacy quickly, an evergreen will be your best choice. However, if you want a tree that will shade you, flower, or turn red, orange, or yellow, look for a deciduous tree

I make comparisons when I'm choosing how to get to class, what to buy in the grocery store or other places, and how to use my time. Essentially, any time I make a decision I am making comparisons between my options to choose between them.

Almost any class might require a compare and contrast essay since it's a basic aspect of critical thinking. You might write one in an English class, comparing two characters or two themes. You might write one in a sociology class, comparing two cultures. You might have to do a compare and contrast essay in a science class when you compare different kinds of intelligences.

I would want to use a point-by-point organization when I have many different points of comparisons and when I want my audience to be able to see the points of comparison side-by-side. Subject-by-subject comparisons allow me to really flesh out each subject so that my readers can see the whole picture at once.

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