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Modern Architecture: Everything You Need to Know 

Despite what it might sound like, modern architecture is not buildings or structures designed within the last few years. “Modern architecture comes from a historical moment,” explains Andrew Heid, founding principal of the New York–based firm No Architecture and member of the AD Pro Directory . “In the history of architecture, modern architecture begins in the 17th century and extends until the mid 20th century, ending in about the 1950s.” Even so, the movement remains one of the most notable and popular architectural styles of the present day. In this guide from AD , learn about the origins and history of modern architecture, visit famous examples, and discover the lasting impact of modern architects.

What is modern architecture?

Modern architecture is the architectural style that dominated the Western world between the 1930s and the 1960s and was characterized by an analytical and functional approach to building design. Buildings in the style are often defined by flat roofs, open floor plans, curtain windows, and minimal ornamentation. Architects of the time were guided by the “rule” that “form follows function,” which prompted designers to consider what a building should achieve for the user before what it should look like. The aesthetic look of modern buildings was heavily correlated with a set of social-political philosophies including the idea that buildings could be the answers to deep-rooted social inequalities. The style is also often called the international style or international modernism.

The National Gallery, designed by Mies Van der Rohe

“For me, modern architecture is most succinctly summarized by Peter Blake, who was the former chief curator of architecture design at MoMA, in the introduction to a book he wrote in the 1970s called T he Three Master Builders,” says Heid. “He argued that modern architecture came into existence in the 19th century when the modern metropolis created new functions and new typologies that never existed before—for example, the stock exchange, the prison, the railroad station, or the hospital—and therefore required new form or expression or style.”

History of modern architecture

The emergence of modernist design is largely credited to a group of European architects, most notably Swiss French architect Le Corbusier and German American architect Walter Gropius. Gropius founded the Bauhaus school in Germany, which taught the design style and school of thought that heavily influenced modernist design. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe , another powerhouse of modern architecture who also taught at the Bauhaus and worked as its third and final director, was also heavily influential. “[Modernists] eventually fled Germany and came to the US because of the Nazis, and that’s really how modernism came to the United States and then made its way from the East Coast to West Coast,” explains Joe Dangaran, cofounder of Los Angeles–based Woods + Dangaran and member of the AD Pro Directory .

Farnsworth House, a modernist glass structure, designed by Mies Van der Rohe

By the 1930s the style spearheaded by these men was spreading throughout the United States, and American architect Philip Johnson curated an exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York called “Modern Architecture: International Exhibition,” which showcased the new style or architecture defined by geometric forms and minimal ornamentation. From here, both the terms international style and modern architecture were born, and the exhibit expressed the fundamental principles of modern design. Louis Sullivan, an influential Chicago School architect and mentor to Frank Lloyd Wright, coined the term “form follows function” in 1893, which ultimately became an important tenement for the modernist movement. “A big part of modern design was making homes more comfortable and healthy,” explains Dangaran. At the time, plenty of natural light and open space weren’t a given, and the modern style sought to include these elements in order to make the people living inside feel happier and healthier. “Indoor-outdoor connection, connection to the landscape, to natural light…that was really modernism that brought that into architecture,” Dangaran says.

The interior of Farnsworth House. A core principle of modern homes was an open floor plan. 

With these aesthetic elements also came structural developments, many of which are still used in contemporary architecture to this day. “The structural innovation of modernism is that they started using either thin concrete, reinforced concrete with steel, or just a steel structure themselves, and they brought the structure off of the envelope of the building, so walls were no longer needed to hold up the building,” Dangaran says. Prior to this most buildings were designed with thick load-bearing walls, and this evolution allowed for greater experimentation with the layout and form of a building. Along with this change came the opportunity for curtain windows and other large openings, fully transforming what was previously possible. “With the invention of this structural steel frame, that was the big breakthrough,” says Heid. “You could fill it with glass, and that’s really what the international style and modernist buildings are about to me.”

In the early 1920s, Corbusier published a manifesto titled the “Five Points of Architecture,” originally appearing in a publication the architect cofounded, L’Esprit Nouveau. In the seminal essay, Corbusier explored five key elements of design that he believed should be the foundation for this new architectural style—many of which concern the structural change Dangaran and Heid noted—and went on to be extremely influential during the modern movement. The principles were as follows:

Buildings are raised on a set of reinforced pilots (or pillars) for ground floor circulation and to make room for cars or gardens.

Essentially an open floor plan, this principle related to a structural development and the removal of load-bearing partition walls, allowing flexibility of the interior living spaces.

The structure is separated from the walls, allowing for more flexibility for windows and openings.

Horizontal ribbon windows extend along the facade, offering a more balanced lighting and a greater sense of space.

Modern homes should include roof gardens, which are flat roofs that allow for additional living space.

Villa Savoye

No building exemplifies these ideals quite like Villa Savoye, designed by Corbusier and his cousin Pierre Jeanneret. Located on the outskirts of Paris, the home follows Corbusier’s five points and features pilotis made from reinforced concrete, horizontal windows, a free floor plan and façade, and a roof garden.

A contemporary home designed by Andrew Heid featuring many elements seen in modernist homes including floor-to-ceiling windows, a flat roof, and connection with nature. 

In many ways, modernism was the built expression of a series of utopian social ideas, many of which were based on the ideas that buildings could improve and change social inequalities. Postmodernism rejected this idea, and rather sought to explore architecture from an eccentric and sometimes humorous perspective. As Owen Hopkins , an architectural writer and curator and author of multiple books including Postmodern Architecture: Less Is a Bore , told AD about the emergence of postmodern design , “The idea that one could simply build a better world had very much run its course.”

Defining elements and characteristics of modern architecture

The Eames House, the home and studio of pioneering designers Charles and Ray Eames 

To better understand modern architecture, consider the following elements often seen in this style of design.

This home, designed by Woods + Dangaran, takes inspiration from modernism. 

In addition to the breakthrough structural advancements, there are many aesthetic components of modern design that are signifiers of the style.

• Rectangular forms with clean lines
• Open floor plans
• Large, horizontal windows or curtain glass
• A connection between the indoor and outdoor
• Lack of ornamentation
• Steel, glass, and reinforced concrete among the most prominent building materials

Famous Modern Architecture Examples and Architects

In addition to Villa Savoye, the following are among the most recognizable and notable examples of modernist design:

The Seagram Building

Designed by two of the biggest modernist architects of the time, the Seagram Building in New York is the epitome of modernism in a skyscraper. Its impact was notable from the minute it was completed, and The New York Times even went so far as to say it is one of the city’s “ most copied buildings .”

The Barcelona Pavilion

The Barcelona Pavilion is noted for its use of many luxurious materials—such as onyx and travertine—in conjunction with its simple form. The structure was designed as the German Pavilion for the 1929 International Exposition.

Fallingwater

A pioneer of midcentury modernism , Frank Lloyd Wright ’s Fallingwater is one of the most influential residential homes ever built. Though it incorporates elements of organic architecture as well, it was designed following many of the principles of modernism and can be viewed as an evolution of the style.

The Glass House in the fall

The Glass House by Philip Johnson is one of the best examples of the structural advancements that came about during the modern movement. No longer load-bearing, the glass walls are the standout feature of the property.

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Twentieth-Century Building Materials: History and Conservation

Edited by Thomas C. Jester

PDF file size: 6 MB

Description

Over the concluding decades of the twentieth century, the historic preservation community increasingly turned its attention to modern buildings, including bungalows from the 1930s, gas stations and diners from the 1940s, and office buildings and architectural homes from the 1950s. Conservation efforts, however, were often hampered by a lack of technical information about the products used in these structures, and to fill this gap Twentieth-Century Building Materials was developed by the U.S. Department of the Interior’s National Park Service and first published in 1995. Now, this invaluable guide is being reissued—with a new preface by the book’s original editor.

With more than 250 illustrations, including a full-color photographic essay, the volume remains an indispensable reference on the history and conservation of modern building materials. Thirty-seven essays written by leading experts offer insights into the history, manufacturing processes, and uses of a wide range of materials, including glass block, aluminum, plywood, linoleum, and gypsum board. Readers will also learn about how these materials perform over time and discover valuable conservation and repair techniques. Bibliographies and sources for further research complete the volume.

The book is intended for a wide range of conservation professionals including architects, engineers, conservators, and material scientists engaged in the conservation of modern buildings, as well as scholars in related disciplines.

Table of Contents

• Foreword to the 2014 Edition, Timothy P. Whalen
• Preface to the 2014 Edition, Thomas C. Jester
• Preface to the First Edition, Thomas C. Jester
• Acknowledgments
• Twentieth-Century Building Materials: A Photographic Essay
• Introduction: Building Modern America: An Era of Standardization and Experimentation, Michael A. Tomlan
• 1. ALUMINUM, Stephen J. Kelley
• 2. MONEL, Derek H. Trelstad
• 3. NICKEL SILVER, Adrienne B. Cowden
• 4. STAINLESS STEEL, Robert Score and Irene J. Cohen
• 5. WEATHERING STEEL, John C. Scott and Carolyn L. Searls
• 6. CONCRETE BLOCK, Pamela H. Simpson; Harry J. Hunderman and Deborah Slaton
• 7. CAST STONE, Adrienne B. Cowden; David P. Wessel
• 8. REINFORCED CONCRETE, Amy E. Slaton; Paul E. Gaudette, William G. Hime, and James D. Connolly
• 9. SHOTCRETE, Anne T. Sullivan
• 10. ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE, Sidney Freedman
• 11. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE, Howard Newlon, Jr.
• 12. FIBERBOARD, Carol S. Gould, Kimberly A. Konrad, Kathleen Catalano Milley, and Rebecca Gallagher
• 13. DECORATIVE PLASTIC LAMINATES, Anthony J. T. Walker, Kimberly A. Konrad, and Nicole L. Stull
• 14. PLYWOOD, Thomas C. Jester
• 15. GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER, Andrew McNall; David C. Fischetti
• 16. FIBER REINFORCED PLASTIC, Anthony J. T. Walker
• 17. STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE, Conrad Paulson
• 18. TERRA COTTA, Deborah Slaton and Harry J. Hunderman
• 19. GYPSUM BLOCK AND TILE, Susan M. Escherich
• 20. THIN STONE VENEER, Michael J. Scheffler and Edward A. Gerns
• 21. SIMULATED MASONRY, Ann Milkovich McKee
• 22. PLATE GLASS, Kimberly A. Konrad and Kenneth M. Wilson; William J. Nugent and Flora A. Calabrese
• 23. PRISMATIC GLASS, Dietrich Neumann
• 24. GLASS BLOCK, Dietrich Neumann; Jerry G. Stockbridge and Bruce S. Kaskel
• 25. STRUCTURAL GLASS, Carol J. Dyson
• 26. SPANDREL GLASS, Robert W. McKinley
• 27. LINOLEUM, Bonnie Wehle Parks Snyder
• 28. RUBBER TILE, Sharon C. Park
• 29. CORK TILE, Anne E. Grimmer
• 30. TERRAZZO, Walker C. Johnson
• 31. VINYL TILE, Kimberly A. Konrad; Paul D. Kofoed
• 32. ASPHALT SHINGLES, Mike Jackson
• 33. PORCELAIN ENAMEL, Thomas C. Jester
• 34. ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS, Anne E. Weber
• 35. GYPSUM BOARD, Kimberly A. Konrad and Michael A. Tomlan
• 36. BUILDING SEALANTS, Michael J. Scheffler and James D. Connolly
• Bibliography
• Sources for Research
• Authors and Contributors
• Illustration Credits

About the Authors

Thomas C. Jester, AIA, formerly an architectural historian with the National Park Service, is a senior architect at Quinn Evans Architects, where he specializes in historic preservation.

Michael A. Tomlan is director of the Historic Preservation Planning Program, Cornell University.

Stephen J. Kelley is an architect and structural engineer with Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates in Chicago.

Derek H. Trelstad is senior editor of Building Renovation Magazine and adjunct assistant professor in the Historic Preservation Program, Columbia University.

Adrienne B. Cowden is a historic sites surveyor with P. A. C. Spero and Company in Baltimore.

Robert Score is an architect with Muller and Muller in Chicago.

Irene J. Cohen is an architect with McDonald’s Corporation in Oak Brook, Illinois.

John C. Scott is an architectural and fine arts conservator with the New York Conservation Center, New York City.

Carolyn L. Searls is an engineer with Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates in Emeryville, California.

Pamela H. Simpson is professor of art history at Washington and Lee University.

Harry J. Hunderman is an architect with Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates in Chicago.

Deborah Slaton is an architectural conservator with Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates in Chicago.

David P. Wessel is an architectural conservator with Architectural Resources Group in San Francisco.

Amy E. Slaton is a doctoral fellow in the Department of the History of Science, Harvard University.

Paul E. Gaudette is an engineer with Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates in Chicago.

William G. Hime, a chemist, is a principal of Erlin, Hime Associates in Northbrook, Illinois.

James D. Connolly, a chemist, is manager of Erlin, Hime Associates in Northbrook, Illinois.

Anne T. Sullivan is an architect with Johnson-Lasky Architects in Chicago and is an adjunct professor in the Historic Preservation Program, School of the Art Institute of Chicago.

Sidney Freedman is director of architectural services at the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute in Chicago.

Howard Newlon, Jr., is adjunct professor in the Historic Preservation Program at the University of Virginia.

Carol S. Gould is a historian with the Preservation Assistance Division of the National Park Service, Washington, D.C.

Kimberly A. Konrad is a preservation planner with the Boston Landmarks Commission.

Kathleen Catalano Milley is an architectural historian with the Mid-Atlantic Regional Office of the National Park Service, Philadelphia.

Rebecca Gallagher is a design consultant in Mt. Pleasant, South Carolina.

Anthony J. T. Walker is an architect with Damond, Lock, Grabowski Partners in London.

Nicole L. Stull is a graduate of the Historic Preservation Planning Program, Cornell University.

Andrew McNall is a Ph.D. candidate in philosophy at the University of Wisconsin.

David C. Fischetti is a structural engineer with DCF Engineering in Cary, North Carolina.

Conrad Paulson is a structural engineer with Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates in Chicago.

Susan M. Escherich is a historian with the Preservation Assistance Division of the National Park Service, Washington, D.C.

Michael J. Scheffler is a professional engineer with Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates in Chicago.

Edward A. Gerns is an architect with Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates in Chicago.

Ann Milkovich McKee is assistant professor of architecture in the Historic Preservation Program at Ball State University.

Kenneth M. Wilson recently retired as director of collections and preservation at the Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan. He is the author of New England Glass and Glassmaking and American Glass: 1760–1930 .

William J. Nugent is a structural engineer with Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates in Northbrook, Illinois.

Flora A. Calabrese is a structural engineer with Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates in Northbrook, Illinois.

Dietrich Neumann is assistant professor of art history at Brown University.

Jerry G. Stockbridge is an architect, structural engineer, and president of Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates in Northbrook, Illinois.

Bruce S. Kaskel is an architect and structural engineer with Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates in Chicago.

Carol J. Dyson is an architectural historian with the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency in Springfield.

Robert W. McKinley, formerly manager of technical services at PPG Industries, is a management consultant based in Hancock, New Hampshire.

Bonnie Wehle Parks Snyder is a principal with P.S. Preservation Services and an environmental planner with the California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, California.

Sharon C. Park is senior historical architect with the Preservation Assistance Division of the National Park Service, Washington, D.C.

Anne E. Grimmer is an architectural historian with the Preservation Assistance Division of the National Park Service, Washington, D.C.

Walker C. Johnson is a principal of Johnson-Lasky Architects in Chicago and a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects.

Paul D. Kofoed is a chemist with Erlin, Hime Associates in Northbrook, Illinois.

Mike Jackson is chief architect of the Division of Preservation Services of the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency in Springfield.

Anne E. Weber is an architect with Ford, Farewell, Mills and Gatsch in Princeton, New Jersey.

Architecture & Design

The evolution of construction materials and techniques - a look back in time.

The evolution of construction materials and techniques has come a long way from the days of building with mud and straw. Throughout human history, the materials used for construction and the techniques employed to build structures have evolved greatly, leading to the development of the skyscrapers and modern architectural marvels that exist today.

.rpzmna-y51p0m{color:inherit;font-size:inherit;-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;text-decoration-thickness:1px;}.rpzmna-y51p0m:hover{-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;}.rpzmna-y51p0m:hover::after{content:" #";opacity:0.6;-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;} The Evolution Of Construction Materials And Techniques

The Development Of New Construction Materials

The integration of technology into construction, history of building materials timeline, early building materials - stone, clay, and straw, the use of brick and mortar, the introduction of reinforced concrete, the development of new building materials.

Construction Materials and Methods

The Integration Of Technology In Building Materials

People also ask, what was one of the earliest building materials used by humans, what is one of the newest materials that have had a profound impact on the building industry, what has technology enabled in the construction of building materials, .rpzmna-1mysgrz{display:-webkit-box;-webkit-line-clamp:1;-webkit-box-orient:vertical;overflow:hidden;-webkit-line-clamp:2;} the evolution of construction materials and techniques.

George Evans

Dezeen Magazine dezeen-logo dezeen-logo

Ten future materials that could change the way we build

Following news that hemp could be used as a low-cost, low-carbon way of reinforcing concrete , here are 10 promising new construction materials including plastic that's stronger than steel and 3D-printed mushroom columns .

Researchers are developing materials that perform better or that tread more lightly on the planet – and ideally do both.

In the near future, natural materials including hemp and mycelium as well as synthetic ones such as carbon fibre and high-performance plastics could play a much bigger part in the construction process.

Here are ten innovative new materials from our archive:

Biochar cladding

German start-up Made of Air produces bioplastic from forest and farm waste that sequesters carbon and can be used to make objects including cladding.

Hexagonal panels dubbed HexChar were installed on an Audi dealership in Munich last year, marking the first time the product had been used on a building.

Find out more about biochar cladding ›

Carbon-fibre reinforced concrete

This newly developed type of concrete is strengthened with carbon-fibre yarn, so far less concrete is needed for a structure of the same strength.

Researchers at the Technical University of Dresden have been working with German architecture firm Henn to create the building made from this "carbon concrete", which will be named The Cube.

Find out more about carbon-fibre reinforced concrete ›

Super-strong plastic

Invented by Massachusetts Institute of Technology chemical engineers, 2DPA-1 is light and mouldable like all plastics, while being twice as strong as steel.

Synthesised using a new polymerisation process, it will first be used as an ultrathin coating to enhance the durability of objects, but could one day be developed into a structural reinforcement material for buildings.

Find out more about 2DPA-1 ›

3D-printed mycelium

There are many ways of using mycelium , which is the branching, vegetative part of a fungus, for construction.

One is Blast Studio's 3D-printing method, which the London practice used to make a two-metre-high column that can be used as a load-bearing architectural element. It also yields a mushroom crop.

Find out more about 3D-printed mycelium ›

Made of one of the world's most carbon-sequestering plants, hemp rebar is currently in development at the USA's Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

It aims to be a low-cost, low-carbon alternative to standard steel rebar that also avoids the problem of corrosion, extending the lifespan of concrete structures.

Find out more about hemp rebar ›

Carbon-sequestering Carbicrete

Canadian company Carbicrete has developed a method for sequestering carbon in concrete, claiming its product captures more carbon than it emits.

Instead of calcium-based cement, which is highly CO2 emitting, Carbicrete relies on waste slag from the steel industry plus carbon captured from industrial plants. It has been used to make concrete masonry units and precast panels.

Find out more about carbon-sequestering Carbicrete ›

K-Briq construction waste bricks

Invented by engineering professor Gabriela Medero at Edinburgh's Heriot-Watt University and launched through her startup Kenoteq, the K-Briq is made of 90 per cent construction waste and is unfired.

The low-carbon alternative to regular bricks is already available to order in standard or bespoke colours.

Find out more about K-Briq ›

Chipboard from potato peelings

London-based designers Rowan Minkley and Robert Nicoll created this eco-friendly alternative to single-use materials like MDF and chipboard.

Called Chip[s] Board, it is created from potato peelings and made without formaldehyde or other toxic resins, and can be used as a building material.

Find out more about chipboard from potato peelings ›

Green Charcoal loofah bricks

Engineered by researchers at the Indian School of Design and Innovation in Mumbai, these bio-bricks are made of soil, cement, charcoal and organic luffa fibres – better known as loofah, the plant commonly used for bath sponges.

The natural gaps in the loofah's fibrous network enable the bricks to double as a home for animal and plant life, increasing the biodiversity of cities.

Find out more about Green Charcoal loofah bricks ›

Waste paper construction board

Honext's construction board is made of paper that has already gone through several reuse cycles, meaning that the remaining cellulose fibres are too short to be bound together in order for it to be made into paper again.

Honext mixes together the waste cellulose fibres with water and enzymes to make the boards, which can be used for interior partitioning or cladding.

Find out more about waste paper construction board ›

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UNDERSTANDING THE IMPACT OF MODERN BUILDING MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES ON THE ENVIRONMENT

2022, EVELYN GYASI

This essay highlights the key information derived from research in the field of building, environmental technology, and construction focused on the importance of energy efficiency, the significance of ecology, and the quality of the human environment in the construction industry. the world would become a better place if great awareness about the importance of ecology and how to sustain it, is made in every corner of the world to encourage a change of lifestyle, interest, desires, wants, and needs. Though the industry is a culprit of the ecological disruptions, information and easy sourcing of eco-friendly materials, renewable resources, energy efficiency, and renewable energy should be made readily available and easy to understand and absorbed by the masses, starting from educating children from the early childhood institution,

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Sustainable Construction

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Construction is one of the main sectors that generates greenhouse gases. This industry consumes large amounts of raw materials, such as stone, timber, water, etc. Additionally, infrastructure should provide service over many years without safety problems. Therefore, their correct design, construction, maintenance, and dismantling are essential to reducing economic, environmental, and societal consequences. That is why promoting sustainable construction has recently become extremely important. To help address and resolve these types of questions, this book is comprised of twelve chapters that explore new ways of reducing the environmental impacts caused by the construction sector, as well to promote social progress and economic growth. The chapters collect papers included in the “Sustainable Construction” Special Issue of the Sustainability journal. We would like to thank both the MDPI publishing and editorial staff for their excellent work, as well as the 43 authors who collaborated in its preparation. The papers cover a wide spectrum of issues related to the use of sustainable materials in construction, the optimization of designs based on sustainable indicators, the life-cycle assessment, the decision-making processes that integrate economic, social, and environmental aspects, and the promotion of durable materials that reduce future maintenance.

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The word “sustainability” is commonly defined as conserving an ecological balance by avoiding depletion of natural resources”. It concerns with the efficient use of natural resources at a rate so as to address to the present needs as well as secure the needs of future generations. To attain this various types of advanced construction systems have been researched, developed and implemented in specific building projects. The adoption of materials and products in buildings and construction that will require less use of natural resources and increase the reusability while reducing waste is what is broadly called sustainable construction. In building sector building materials are important from the sustainability viewpoint. Construction and the use of buildings influences the total energy, the resource consumption and the waste generation which impacts the environment in terms of use and pollution of the biosphere. Sustainable construction works to solve the problem of low productivity by introducing advanced technologies such as prefabrication, automation and information technologies from manufacturing industry as well as concepts and methodologies associated with new technologies. To support the progress and new innovations in the field of sustainability and effective sustainable built environments knowledge fusion and technology have to be implemented to improve organisation strategies. This makes the process of creating a sustainable economic environment more efficient and time effective. Combining all the information and the data collected from years of research and study we can devise analyse and then proposed newer means and techniques which increase the effectiveness of the sustainable environments. The aim of this paper is to discuss about the importance of material for sustainable architecture, the increasing development and need for innovation and new technologies in field of construction. Keywords: Sustainability, Advanced Construction, Technologies, Knowledge fusion, Innovation

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The purpose of this paper is to address sustainable construction material and technology, which refers to the adaption of building designs, construction materials that are environmental friendly. Through sustainable supplies material available naturally can be used optimally by reducing, recycling and reusing will reduce dependency on raw building material required for construction. This paper includes various components required for sustainable development and sustainable construction technologies and construction materials.

Blaine Brownell

Fundamental environmental challenges such as climate change, resource depletion, and pollution are still widely relevant in today's world. Many of these problems have been associated with the architecture, engineering, and construction industries due to the level of resources used in these professions. In recent years, many manufacturers in these fields have expressed the motivation to make necessary changes that would be beneficial to the environment. Despite this progress, there remains a lack of research and assessment on the methods to achieve environmental stability within these architectural fields. Examining the Environmental Impacts of Materials and Buildings provides emerging research exploring the theoretical and practical aspects of ecological performance within modern building design and materials-based construction. Featuring coverage on a broad range of topics such as life cycle assessment, material flows analysis, and sustainability, this book is ideally designed for architects, civil engineers, construction professionals, environmentalists, ecologists, business practitioners, scientists, policymakers, designers, researchers, and academicians seeking research on current trends in environmental performance within building design.

In this paper it is presented a definition of sustainable construction from ecological aspect, characterized by reducing the impact of different materials in the environment during construction, but also during the whole lifetime of use of buildings. To assess the impact of materials on health and environment is necessary to examine all phases from beginning of the materials manufacturing till the insertion to the construction, including the use of natural resources for the production of construction products, necessary energy for production, amount of release and CO2 emissions (carbon dioxide) in different stages, methods of construction, use of construction and in the end demolition and recycling. In this paper are presented aspects of a sustainable building with a particular approach to the selection of construction materials and the awareness raise about the impact of materials on environment and health during the whole life of using the facilities. Also it is presented sustaina...

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The Evolution of Materials in Architecture

Since the 19th century and until today, architecture continues to evolve. New currents and new styles have resulted in a relative evolution and immense development in construction techniques , which themselves have been achieved by the development of new materials.

The Industrial Revolution

These material innovations begin with the Industrial Revolution towards the end of the 19th century. Indeed, the latter marks a shift from traditional academic and classical to a new system and way of life. With the appearance of new constructions related to work, new means of transport, and new tools, new materials appear, including metal which includes cast iron, iron and steel, glass, and reinforced concrete. Thus, it is true to say that the industrial revolution is considered to be the basis of an earth-shattering architectural development. 

Metal, the most frequently used material in emerging constructions, is, in fact, reliable due to its qualities of resistance, elasticity, and incombustibility. It gives architects and engineers the ability to go up high, free up the ground floors, and light up the interior more since the walls are no longer load-bearing, and the facade is now defined as a curtain wall that supports large openings. 

Metal was used in particular in functional types such as in bridges (Iron Bridge, England – Abraham Darby), stations (Vienna station – Austria – 1870), greenhouses (Greenhouse in the garden of plants – Paris – 1934), and department stores (Galerie Lafayette – Paris). 

However, some architects like Henri Labrouste offer hybrid solutions that involve the use of new materials with traditional materials as in his project La Bibliothèque Sainte Geneviève in Paris where he mixes stone and iron, inviting users to question this duality, and which will lead to the notion of the use of structure in aesthetics also known under the name of Structural Rationalism and which will be introduced by Eugene Viollet-Le-Duc.

The Chicago School

In America, the tragedy of the fire that ravaged the city of Chicago led to the rise of the Chicago School (1870-1910), which took advantage of new materials to rebuild itself. Skyscrapers are the most noticeable structures that emerge with William LeBaron Jenney. These skyscrapers like Marshall Field Warehouse have in fact the metallic structure that makes their height possible, with the apparent use of glass for the showrooms and stone pillars that accentuate their verticality. 

In parallel with the skyscrapers, the house meadows are developed for the more affluent classes. It is convenient to take as an example The Robie House by Frank Lloyd Wright which by its materials is clad in wood but whose structure is in metal and allows to achieve a free plan and a clear space.

Art Nouveau

In the course of Art Nouveau (1890-1914) modern materials began to be used in private architecture with Victor Horta in La Maison Autrique in Belgium which presented a composite wall structure mixing steel and stone and La Casa Mila by Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona whose structure is in steel and the facade in stone. Hector Guimard in Le Metro Parisien uses multiple materials such as cast iron, glass, and mesh. This duality thus shows a certain mixture of archaism (old, past) and modernism (new, modern).

In the Arts and Craft movement (1860-1910) new materials are used but with creativity and individualism as in The Red House by Philip Webb where the latter emphasizes the frame in accordance with the idea of structural rationalism.

The Vienna Secession

In Austria, and with the Viennese Secession, architects resorted to overloaded materials. Otto Wagner, architect and founder of the secession, however, presents a style of his own in relation to materials: he resorts to the plating of one material on another, a style notably apparent in La Caisse d’Epargne de la Poste de Vienne or he builds the wall in stone, a light and rapid material in construction, and ultimately hides it with slabs of marble, a noble material with a rich appearance, and highlights them with nails. He also adopts this method in his treatment of furniture (steel chair on wood).

The architect Adolf Loos places great importance on materials using them as a means of treating interior and exterior, considering that he stubbornly opposes ornamentation. His treatment can be seen in several of his projects such as Karntner Bar and La Maison Moller.

The Architecture of Reinforced Concrete

From 1899, with Auguste Perret and the evolution of classical rationalism, reinforced concrete became one of the most used materials and considered ideal in architecture. Indeed, the reliability of this non-noble material is such thanks to its solidity, its incombustibility, its ease in its work, in addition to its qualities of prefabrication and standardization. It thus made it possible to build the Small Theater of the Decorative Arts Exhibition, a large space requiring size. 

On the other hand, at the very beginning of its development, reinforced concrete was used in construction and then covered with other materials or patterns, such as in the 25 Bis Rue Franklin Paris building, which residents described as unattractive. However, as time goes by, reinforced concrete ends up being used as it is in noble structures such as churches as in Notre Dame du Raincy considered as a reference building for reinforced concrete. Thus, with this unloved material, Perret renewed the architectural language and it was the first time that this so-called shameful material has been used for the noblest of architectures. 

The concrete thus allows in this project to have curtain walls and very open space providing a clear view of the altar and the surroundings. In addition, it allowed the creation of a singular aesthetic: with only 5 molds Perret forms spans patterns in the balustrade which allow the insertion of light into the church and provide dynamism making the architect, not an industrialist but an artist. 

In addition to this, reinforced concrete was also used by Perret in the reconstruction of the city of Le Havre, saving him time and allowing him to create a very varied architecture at a low cost. This model will be taken up in other European cities such as the city of Chandigarh in India by Le Corbusier.

The idea of reinforced concrete and domino structure obtained through this material was introduced by Tony Garnier in his industrial city in 1917. That said, he imagines very modern means of construction in reinforced concrete, with the slab and the pillar. However, these ideas, which were not feasible in the 18th century and even in the 20th century, were taken up and implemented by other architects including Le Corbusier.

Thus, as already mentioned, reinforced concrete appears as a very important material in the design of Le Corbusier. It gives life to the domino structure which helps in obtaining a free and unobstructed space, a light construction, free plans and arrangements, and multifunctional spaces. This system is present in Villa Schwob and on a larger scale in the Citée Fruges developed for the industrialist Henri Fruges and comprising 130 houses for workers and La Cite Radieuse which also merges its 5 pillars of modern architecture.

The Architecture of Glass

Apart from reinforced concrete, glass is an equally important material that has made it possible in a considerable way to develop the means of construction and the vision of various architects. It was with the Bauhaus, a school founded by Walter Gropius that the idea of glass and window began to emerge, with the aim of communication, transparency, and the marketing of products. This is apparent in Bauhaus Dessau. 

Mies Van Der Rohe is one of the directors of the Bauhaus will be enormously influenced by the way of thinking about glass, which will lead him to be part of the group of Expressionisms, which praise glass and of which the theoretician Paul Scheebart in even managed to write a book “Glass architecture” in which he highlights its various advantages. Mies Van Der Rohe, as well as all these architects, are then qualified as utopian, wishing to eliminate as much as possible the other materials and cover the surface of the earth with glass, which they consider to be an ideal material (for them glass has an effect on the psyche and grant serenity). 

Several glass architectures were proposed to highlight this material, including the ephemeral pavilion by architect Bruno Taut, which includes quotes on the glass inside, citing that glass makes it possible to make man better… Moreover, we can cite the unfinished glass skyscraper by Mies Van Der Rohe in Berlin which underlines the important play of reflections making the facade dynamic, in movement and integrated into its site and allowing light to enter it. 

MVR uses in its architecture a metal frame, a glass envelope, and the structural system of dominoes established by Garnier and applied by Le Corbusier. These features are apparent in his Farnsworth House project. One of his skyscrapers, however, that has been realized is the Seagram Building where he adds metal beams over the entire facade to reinforce the idea of the building’s skeleton, although they have no structural role in this case.

Finally, Frank Lloyd Wright attaches importance in his architecture to reinforced concrete and glass simultaneously. With reinforced concrete, he puts forward the cantilever system which is directly related to the theory of growing plants envisaged by Sullivan, and which allows him to create overhangs, terraces, and balconies. On the other hand, his use of glass gives him transparency and allows him to establish a direct relationship with the nature that surrounds his project. These principles are visible in his Falling Water project, whose construction materials were especially taken from the site.

In conclusion, the development of materials, considered as the basis of architecture since the 19th century and up to the present day, has simultaneously allowed the development and upheaval of construction methodologies, but above all facilitated the task of architects in creating spaces. both open and pleasant as well as rigid and secure.

Angela Hanna is a senior architecture student at the university of USEK, Lebanon. Having always been passionate about reading, she states that words have a wicked and powerful way to change our perception and therefore our reality. She believes that through the creation of spaces, we create emotions and enhance mindsets, thus which will work in favor of building a better world.

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