- MAY 16, 2024
What Is Empirical Research? Definition, Types & Samples in 2024
by Imed Bouchrika, Phd
Co-Founder and Chief Data Scientist
How was the world formed? Are there parallel universes? Why does time move forward but never in reverse? These are longstanding questions that have yet to receive definitive answers up to now.
In research, these are called empirical questions, which ask about how the world is, how the world works, etc. Such questions are addressed by a corresponding type of study—called empirical research or the empirical method—which is concerned with actual events and phenomena.
What is an empirical study? Research is empirical if it seeks to find a general story or explanation, one that applies to various cases and across time. The empirical approach functions to create new knowledge about the way the world actually works. This article discusses the empirical research definition, concepts, types, processes, and other important aspects of this method. It also tackles the importance of identifying evidence in research .
I. What is Empirical Research?
A. definitions.
What is empirical evidence? Empirical research is defined as any study whose conclusions are exclusively derived from concrete, verifiable evidence. The term empirical basically means that it is guided by scientific experimentation and/or evidence. Likewise, a study is empirical when it uses real-world evidence in investigating its assertions.
This research type is founded on the view that direct observation of phenomena is a proper way to measure reality and generate truth about the world (Bhattacharya, 2008). And by its name, it is a methodology in research that observes the rules of empiricism and uses quantitative and qualitative methods for gathering evidence.
For instance, a study is being conducted to determine if working from home helps in reducing stress from highly-demanding jobs. An experiment is conducted using two groups of employees, one working at their homes, the other working at the office. Each group was observed. The outcomes derived from this research will provide empirical evidence if working from home does help reduce stress or not. This also applies to entrepreneurs when they use a small business idea generator instead of manual procedures.
It was the ancient Greek medical practitioners who originated the term empirical ( empeirikos which means “experienced") when they began to deviate from the long-observed dogmatic principles to start depending on observed phenomena. Later on, empiricism pertained to a theory of knowledge in philosophy, which follows the belief that knowledge comes from evidence and experience derived particularly using the senses.
What ancient philosophers considered empirical research pertained to the reliance on observable data to design and test theories and reach conclusions. As such, empirical research is used to produce knowledge that is based on experience. At present, the word “empirical" pertains to the gathering of data using evidence that is derived through experience or observation or by using calibrated scientific tools.
Most of today’s outstanding empirical research outputs are published in prestigious journals. These scientific publications are considered high-impact journals because they publish research articles that tend to be the most cited in their fields.
II. Types and Methodologies of Empirical Research
Empirical research is done using either qualitative or quantitative methods.
Qualitative research Qualitative research methods are utilized for gathering non-numerical data. It is used to determine the underlying reasons, views, or meanings from study participants or subjects. Under the qualitative research design, empirical studies had evolved to test the conventional concepts of evidence and truth while still observing the fundamental principles of recognizing the subjects beings studied as empirical (Powner, 2015).
This method can be semi-structured or unstructured. Results from this research type are more descriptive than predictive. It allows the researcher to write a conclusion to support the hypothesis or theory being examined.
Due to realities like time and resources, the sample size of qualitative research is typically small. It is designed to offer in-depth information or more insight regarding the problem. Some of the most popular forms of methods are interviews, experiments, and focus groups.
Quantitative research Quantitative research methods are used for gathering information via numerical data. This type is used to measure behavior, personal views, preferences, and other variables. Quantitative studies are in a more structured format, while the variables used are predetermined.
Data gathered from quantitative studies is analyzed to address the empirical questions. Some of the commonly used quantitative methods are polls, surveys, and longitudinal or cohort studies.
There are situations when using a single research method is not enough to adequately answer the questions being studied. In such cases, a combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods is necessary. Also, papers can also make use of both primary and secondary research methods
III. Qualitative Empirical Research Methods
Some research question examples need to be gathered and analyzed qualitatively or quantitatively, depending on the nature of the study. These not only supply answers to empirical questions but also outline one’s scope of work . Here are the general types of qualitative research methods.
Observational Method
This involves observing and gathering data from study subjects. As a qualitative approach, observation is quite personal and time-intensive. It is often used in ethnographic studies to obtain empirical evidence.
The observational method is a part of the ethnographic research design, e.g., archival research, survey, etc. However, while it is commonly used for qualitative purposes, observation is also utilized for quantitative research, such as when observing measurable variables like weight, age, scale, etc.
One remarkable observational research was conducted by Abbott et al. (2016), a team of physicists from the Advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory who examined the very first direct observation of gravitational waves. According to Google Scholar’s (2019) Metrics ranking, this study is among the most highly cited articles from the world’s most influential journals (Crew, 2019).
This method is exclusively qualitative and is one of the most widely used (Jamshed, 2014). Its popularity is mainly due to its ability to allow researchers to obtain precise, relevant information if the correct questions are asked.
This method is a form of a conversational approach, where in-depth data can be obtained. Interviews are commonly used in the social sciences and humanities, such as for interviewing resource persons.
This method is used to identify extensive information through an in-depth analysis of existing cases. It is typically used to obtain empirical evidence for investigating problems or business studies.
When conducting case studies, the researcher must carefully perform the empirical analysis, ensuring the variables and parameters in the current case are similar to the case being examined. From the findings of a case study, conclusions can be deduced about the topic being investigated.
Case studies are commonly used in studying the experience of organizations, groups of persons, geographic locations, etc.
Textual Analysis
This primarily involves the process of describing, interpreting, and understanding textual content. It typically seeks to connect the text to a broader artistic, cultural, political, or social context (Fairclough, 2003).
A relatively new research method, textual analysis is often used nowadays to elaborate on the trends and patterns of media content, especially social media. Data obtained from this approach are primarily used to determine customer buying habits and preferences for product development, and designing marketing campaigns.
Focus Groups
A focus group is a thoroughly planned discussion guided by a moderator and conducted to derive opinions on a designated topic. Essentially a group interview or collective conversation, this method offers a notably meaningful approach to think through particular issues or concerns (Kamberelis & Dimitriadis, 2011).
This research method is used when a researcher wants to know the answers to “how," “what," and “why" questions. Nowadays, focus groups are among the most widely used methods by consumer product producers for designing and/or improving products that people prefer.
IV. Quantitative Empirical Research Methods
Quantitative methods primarily help researchers to better analyze the gathered evidence. Here are the most common types of quantitative research techniques:
A research hypothesis is commonly tested using an experiment, which involves the creation of a controlled environment where the variables are maneuvered. Aside from determining the cause and effect, this method helps in knowing testing outcomes, such as when altering or removing variables.
Traditionally, experimental, laboratory-based research is used to advance knowledge in the physical and life sciences, including psychology. In recent decades, more and more social scientists are also adopting lab experiments (Falk & Heckman, 2009).
Survey research is designed to generate statistical data about a target audience (Fowler, 2014). Surveys can involve large, medium, or small populations and can either be a one-time event or a continuing process
Governments across the world are among the heavy users of continuing surveys, such as for census of populations or labor force surveys. This is a quantitative method that uses predetermined sets of closed questions that are easy to answer, thus enabling the gathering and analysis of large data sets.
In the past, surveys used to be expensive and time-consuming. But with the advancement in technology, new survey tools like social media and emails have made this research method easier and cheaper.
Causal-Comparative research
This method leverages the strength of comparison. It is primarily utilized to determine the cause and effect relationship among variables (Schenker & Rumrill, 2004).
For instance, a causal-comparative study measured the productivity of employees in an organization that allows remote work setup and compared that to the staff of another organization that does not offer work from home arrangements.
Cross-sectional research
While the observation method considers study subjects at a given point in time, cross-sectional research focuses on the similarity in all variables except the one being studied.
This type does not allow for the determination of cause-effect relationships since subjects are now observed continuously. A cross-sectional study is often followed by longitudinal research to determine the precise causes. It is used mainly by pharmaceutical firms and retailers.
Longitudinal study
A longitudinal method of research is used for understanding the traits or behavior of a subject under observation after repeatedly testing the subject over a certain period of time. Data collected using this method can be qualitative or quantitative in nature.
A commonly-used form of longitudinal research is the cohort study. For instance, in 1951, a cohort study called the British Doctors Study (Doll et al., 2004) was initiated, which compared smokers and non-smokers in the UK. The study continued through 2001. As early as 1956, the study gave undeniable proof of the direct link between smoking and the incidence of lung cancer.
Correlational research
This method is used to determine the relationships and prevalence among variables (Curtis et al., 2016). It commonly employs regression as the statistical treatment for predicting the study’s outcomes, which can only be a negative, neutral, or positive correlation.
A classic example of empirical research with correlational research is when studying if high education helps in obtaining better-paying jobs. If outcomes indicate that higher education does allow individuals to have high-salaried jobs, then it follows that people with less education tend to have lower-paying jobs.
V. Steps for Conducting Empirical Research
Since empirical research is based on observation and capturing experiences, it is important to plan the steps to conduct the experiment and how to analyze it. This will enable the researcher to resolve problems or obstacles, which can occur during the experiment.
Step #1: Establishing the research objective
In this initial step, the researcher must be clear about what he or she precisely wants to do in the study. He or she should likewise frame the problem statement, plans of action, and determine any potential issues with the available resources, schedule, etc. for the research.
Most importantly, the researcher must be able to ascertain whether the study will be more beneficial than the cost it will incur.
Step #2: Reviewing relevant literature and supporting theories
The researcher must determine relevant theories or models to his or her research problem. If there are any such theories or models, they must understand how it can help in supporting the study outcomes.
Relevant literature must also be consulted. The researcher must be able to identify previous studies that examined similar problems or subjects, as well as determine the issues encountered.
Step #3: Framing the hypothesis and measurement
The researcher must frame an initial hypothesis or educated guess that could be the likely outcome. Variables must be established, along with the research context.
Units of measurements should also be defined, including the allowable margin of errors. The researcher must determine if the selected measures will be accepted by other scholars.
Step #4: Defining the research design, methodology, and data collection techniques
Before proceeding with the study, the researcher must establish an appropriate approach for the research. He or she must organize experiments to gather data that will allow him or her to frame the hypothesis.
The researcher should also decide whether he or she will use a nonexperimental or experimental technique to perform the study. Likewise, the type of research design will depend on the type of study being conducted.
Finally, the researcher must determine the parameters that will influence the validity of the research design. Data gathering must be performed by selecting suitable samples based on the research question. After gathering the empirical data, the analysis follows.
Step #5: Conducting data analysis and framing the results
Data analysis is done either quantitatively or qualitatively. Depending on the nature of the study, the researcher must determine which method of data analysis is the appropriate one, or whether a combination of the two is suitable.
The outcomes of this step determine if the hypothesis is supported or rejected. This is why data analysis is considered as one of the most crucial steps in any research undertaking.
Step #6: Making conclusions
A report must be prepared in that it presents the findings and the entire research proceeding. If the researcher intends to disseminate his or her findings to a wider audience, the report will be converted into an article for publication. Aside from including the typical parts from the introduction and literature view, up to the methods, analysis, and conclusions, the researcher should also make recommendations for further research on his or her topic.
To ensure the originality and credibility of the report or research, it is essential to employ a plagiarism checker. By using a reliable plagiarism checker, the researcher can verify the uniqueness of their work and avoid any unintentional instances of plagiarism. This step helps maintain the integrity of the research and ensures that the recommendations for further research are based on the researcher’s own original insights. Incorporating a plagiarism checker into the writing process provides an additional layer of assurance and professionalism, enhancing the impact of the report or article in the academic community. Educators can also check the originality of their students’ research by utilizing a free plagiarism checker for teachers .
VI. Empirical Research Cycle
The empirical research cycle is composed of five phases, with each one considered as important as the next phase (de Groot, 1969). This rigorous and systematic method can consistently capture the process of framing hypotheses on how certain subjects behave or function and then testing them versus empirical data. It is considered to typify the deductive approach to science.
These are the five phases of the empirical research cycle:
1. Observation
During this initial phase, an idea is triggered for presenting a hypothesis. It involves the use of observation to gather empirical data. For example :
Consumers tend to consult first their smartphones before buying something in-store .
2. Induction
Inductive reasoning is then conducted to frame a general conclusion from the data gathered through observation. For example:
As mentioned earlier, most consumers tend to consult first their smartphones before buying something in-store .
A researcher may pose the question, “Does the tendency to use a smartphone indicate that today’s consumers need to be informed before making purchasing decisions?" The researcher can assume that is the case. Nonetheless, since it is still just a supposition, an experiment must be conducted to support or reject this hypothesis.
The researcher decided to conduct an online survey to inquire about the buying habits of a certain sample population of buyers at brick-and-mortar stores. This is to determine whether people always look at their smartphones first before making a purchase.
3. Deduction
This phase enables the researcher to figure out a conclusion out of the experiment. This must be based on rationality and logic in order to arrive at particular, unbiased outcomes. For example:
In the experiment, if a shopper consults first his or her smartphone before buying in-store, then it can be concluded that the shopper needs information to help him or her make informed buying decisions .
This phase involves the researcher going back to the empirical research steps to test the hypothesis. There is now the need to analyze and validate the data using appropriate statistical methods.
If the researcher confirms that in-store shoppers do consult their smartphones for product information before making a purchase, the researcher has found support for the hypothesis. However, it should be noted that this is just support of the hypothesis, not proof of a reality.
5. Evaluation
This phase is often neglected by many but is actually a crucial step to help keep expanding knowledge. During this stage, the researcher presents the gathered data, the supporting contention/s, and conclusions.
The researcher likewise puts forth the limitations of the study and his hypothesis. In addition, the researcher makes recommendations for further studies on the same topic with expanded variables.
VII. Advantages and Disadvantages of Empirical Research
Since the time of the ancient Greeks, empirical research had been providing the world with numerous benefits. The following are a few of them:
- Empirical research is used to validate previous research findings and frameworks.
- It assumes a critical role in enhancing internal validity.
- The degree of control is high, which enables the researcher to manage numerous variables.
- It allows a researcher to comprehend the progressive changes that can occur, and thus enables him to modify an approach when needed.
- Being based on facts and experience makes a research project more authentic and competent.
Disadvantages
Despite the many benefits it brings, empirical research is far from perfect. The following are some of its drawbacks:
- Being evidence-based, data collection is a common problem especially when the research involves different sources and multiple methods.
- It can be time-consuming, especially for longitudinal research.
- Requesting permission to perform certain methods can be difficult, especially when a study involves human subjects.
- Conducting research in multiple locations can be very expensive.
- The propensity of even seasoned researchers to incorrectly interpret the statistical significance. For instance, Amrhein et al. (2019) made an analysis of 791 articles from five journals and found that half incorrectly interpreted that non-significance indicates zero effect.
VIII. Samples of Empirical Research
There are many types of empirical research. And, they can take many formsfrom basic research to action research like community project efforts. Here are some notable empirical research examples:
Professional Research
- Research on Information Technology
- Research on Infectious Diseases
- Research on Occupational Health Psychology
- Research on Infection Control
- Research on Cancer
- Research on Mathematical Science
- Research on Environmental Science
- Research on Genetics
- Research on Climate Change
- Research on Economics
Student Research
- Thesis for B.S. in Computer Science & Engineering
- Thesis for B.S. in Geography
- Thesis for B.S. in Architecture
- Thesis for Master of Science in Electrical Engineering & Computer Science
- Thesis for Master of Science in Artificial Intelligence
- Thesis for Master of Science in Food Science and Nutrition
- Dissertation for Ph.D. in Marketing
- Dissertation for Ph.D. in Social Work
- Dissertation for Ph.D. in Urban Planning
Since ancient times until today, empirical research remains one of the most useful tools in man’s collective endeavor to unlock life’s mysteries. Using meaningful experience and observable evidence, this type of research will continue helping validate myriad hypotheses, test theoretical models, and advance various fields of specialization.
With new forms of deadly diseases and other problems continuing to plague man’s existence, finding effective medical interventions and relevant solutions had never been more important. This is among the reasons why empirical research had assumed a more prominent role in today’s society.
This article was able to discuss the different empirical research methods, the steps for conducting empirical research, the empirical research cycle, and notable examples. All of these contribute to supporting the larger societal cause to help understand how the world really works and make it a better place. Furthermore, being factually accurate is a big part of the criteria of good research , and it serves as the heart of empirical research.
Key Insights
- Definition of Empirical Research: Empirical research is based on verifiable evidence derived from observation and experimentation, aiming to understand how the world works.
- Origins: The concept of empirical research dates back to ancient Greek medical practitioners who relied on observed phenomena rather than dogmatic principles.
- Types and Methods: Empirical research can be qualitative (e.g., interviews, case studies) or quantitative (e.g., surveys, experiments), depending on the nature of the data collected and the research question.
- Empirical Research Cycle: Consists of observation, induction, deduction, testing, and evaluation, forming a systematic approach to generating and testing hypotheses.
- Steps in Conducting Empirical Research: Includes establishing objectives, reviewing literature, framing hypotheses, designing methodology, collecting data, analyzing data, and making conclusions.
- Advantages: Empirical research validates previous findings, enhances internal validity, allows for high control over variables, and is fact-based, making it authentic and competent.
- Disadvantages: Data collection can be challenging and time-consuming, especially in longitudinal studies, and interpreting statistical significance can be problematic.
- Applications: Used across various fields such as IT, infectious diseases, occupational health, environmental science, and economics. It is also prevalent in student research for theses and dissertations.
- What is the primary goal of empirical research? The primary goal of empirical research is to generate knowledge about how the world works by relying on verifiable evidence obtained through observation and experimentation.
- How does empirical research differ from theoretical research? Empirical research is based on observable and measurable evidence, while theoretical research involves abstract ideas and concepts without necessarily relying on real-world data.
- What are the main types of empirical research methods? The main types of empirical research methods are qualitative (e.g., interviews, case studies, focus groups) and quantitative (e.g., surveys, experiments, cross-sectional studies).
- Why is the empirical research cycle important? The empirical research cycle is important because it provides a structured and systematic approach to generating and testing hypotheses, ensuring that the research is thorough and reliable.
- What are the steps involved in conducting empirical research? The steps involved in conducting empirical research include establishing the research objective, reviewing relevant literature, framing hypotheses, defining research design and methodology, collecting data, analyzing data, and making conclusions.
- What are the advantages of empirical research? The advantages of empirical research include validating previous findings, enhancing internal validity, allowing for high control over variables, and being based on facts and experiences, making the research authentic and competent.
- What are some common challenges in conducting empirical research? Common challenges in conducting empirical research include difficulties in data collection, time-consuming processes, obtaining permissions for certain methods, high costs, and potential misinterpretation of statistical significance.
- In which fields is empirical research commonly used? Empirical research is commonly used in fields such as information technology, infectious diseases, occupational health, environmental science, economics, and various academic disciplines for student theses and dissertations.
- Can empirical research use both qualitative and quantitative methods? Yes, empirical research can use both qualitative and quantitative methods, often combining them to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem.
- What role does empirical research play in modern society? Empirical research plays a crucial role in modern society by validating hypotheses, testing theoretical models, and advancing knowledge across various fields, ultimately contributing to solving complex problems and improving the quality of life.
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Empirical Research: Definition, Methods, Types and Examples
Content Index
Empirical research: Definition
Empirical research: origin, quantitative research methods, qualitative research methods, steps for conducting empirical research, empirical research methodology cycle, advantages of empirical research, disadvantages of empirical research, why is there a need for empirical research.
Empirical research is defined as any research where conclusions of the study is strictly drawn from concretely empirical evidence, and therefore “verifiable” evidence.
This empirical evidence can be gathered using quantitative market research and qualitative market research methods.
For example: A research is being conducted to find out if listening to happy music in the workplace while working may promote creativity? An experiment is conducted by using a music website survey on a set of audience who are exposed to happy music and another set who are not listening to music at all, and the subjects are then observed. The results derived from such a research will give empirical evidence if it does promote creativity or not.
LEARN ABOUT: Behavioral Research
You must have heard the quote” I will not believe it unless I see it”. This came from the ancient empiricists, a fundamental understanding that powered the emergence of medieval science during the renaissance period and laid the foundation of modern science, as we know it today. The word itself has its roots in greek. It is derived from the greek word empeirikos which means “experienced”.
In today’s world, the word empirical refers to collection of data using evidence that is collected through observation or experience or by using calibrated scientific instruments. All of the above origins have one thing in common which is dependence of observation and experiments to collect data and test them to come up with conclusions.
LEARN ABOUT: Causal Research
Types and methodologies of empirical research
Empirical research can be conducted and analysed using qualitative or quantitative methods.
- Quantitative research : Quantitative research methods are used to gather information through numerical data. It is used to quantify opinions, behaviors or other defined variables . These are predetermined and are in a more structured format. Some of the commonly used methods are survey, longitudinal studies, polls, etc
- Qualitative research: Qualitative research methods are used to gather non numerical data. It is used to find meanings, opinions, or the underlying reasons from its subjects. These methods are unstructured or semi structured. The sample size for such a research is usually small and it is a conversational type of method to provide more insight or in-depth information about the problem Some of the most popular forms of methods are focus groups, experiments, interviews, etc.
Data collected from these will need to be analysed. Empirical evidence can also be analysed either quantitatively and qualitatively. Using this, the researcher can answer empirical questions which have to be clearly defined and answerable with the findings he has got. The type of research design used will vary depending on the field in which it is going to be used. Many of them might choose to do a collective research involving quantitative and qualitative method to better answer questions which cannot be studied in a laboratory setting.
LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Research Questions and Questionnaires
Quantitative research methods aid in analyzing the empirical evidence gathered. By using these a researcher can find out if his hypothesis is supported or not.
- Survey research: Survey research generally involves a large audience to collect a large amount of data. This is a quantitative method having a predetermined set of closed questions which are pretty easy to answer. Because of the simplicity of such a method, high responses are achieved. It is one of the most commonly used methods for all kinds of research in today’s world.
Previously, surveys were taken face to face only with maybe a recorder. However, with advancement in technology and for ease, new mediums such as emails , or social media have emerged.
For example: Depletion of energy resources is a growing concern and hence there is a need for awareness about renewable energy. According to recent studies, fossil fuels still account for around 80% of energy consumption in the United States. Even though there is a rise in the use of green energy every year, there are certain parameters because of which the general population is still not opting for green energy. In order to understand why, a survey can be conducted to gather opinions of the general population about green energy and the factors that influence their choice of switching to renewable energy. Such a survey can help institutions or governing bodies to promote appropriate awareness and incentive schemes to push the use of greener energy.
Learn more: Renewable Energy Survey Template Descriptive Research vs Correlational Research
- Experimental research: In experimental research , an experiment is set up and a hypothesis is tested by creating a situation in which one of the variable is manipulated. This is also used to check cause and effect. It is tested to see what happens to the independent variable if the other one is removed or altered. The process for such a method is usually proposing a hypothesis, experimenting on it, analyzing the findings and reporting the findings to understand if it supports the theory or not.
For example: A particular product company is trying to find what is the reason for them to not be able to capture the market. So the organisation makes changes in each one of the processes like manufacturing, marketing, sales and operations. Through the experiment they understand that sales training directly impacts the market coverage for their product. If the person is trained well, then the product will have better coverage.
- Correlational research: Correlational research is used to find relation between two set of variables . Regression analysis is generally used to predict outcomes of such a method. It can be positive, negative or neutral correlation.
LEARN ABOUT: Level of Analysis
For example: Higher educated individuals will get higher paying jobs. This means higher education enables the individual to high paying job and less education will lead to lower paying jobs.
- Longitudinal study: Longitudinal study is used to understand the traits or behavior of a subject under observation after repeatedly testing the subject over a period of time. Data collected from such a method can be qualitative or quantitative in nature.
For example: A research to find out benefits of exercise. The target is asked to exercise everyday for a particular period of time and the results show higher endurance, stamina, and muscle growth. This supports the fact that exercise benefits an individual body.
- Cross sectional: Cross sectional study is an observational type of method, in which a set of audience is observed at a given point in time. In this type, the set of people are chosen in a fashion which depicts similarity in all the variables except the one which is being researched. This type does not enable the researcher to establish a cause and effect relationship as it is not observed for a continuous time period. It is majorly used by healthcare sector or the retail industry.
For example: A medical study to find the prevalence of under-nutrition disorders in kids of a given population. This will involve looking at a wide range of parameters like age, ethnicity, location, incomes and social backgrounds. If a significant number of kids coming from poor families show under-nutrition disorders, the researcher can further investigate into it. Usually a cross sectional study is followed by a longitudinal study to find out the exact reason.
- Causal-Comparative research : This method is based on comparison. It is mainly used to find out cause-effect relationship between two variables or even multiple variables.
For example: A researcher measured the productivity of employees in a company which gave breaks to the employees during work and compared that to the employees of the company which did not give breaks at all.
LEARN ABOUT: Action Research
Some research questions need to be analysed qualitatively, as quantitative methods are not applicable there. In many cases, in-depth information is needed or a researcher may need to observe a target audience behavior, hence the results needed are in a descriptive analysis form. Qualitative research results will be descriptive rather than predictive. It enables the researcher to build or support theories for future potential quantitative research. In such a situation qualitative research methods are used to derive a conclusion to support the theory or hypothesis being studied.
LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Interview
- Case study: Case study method is used to find more information through carefully analyzing existing cases. It is very often used for business research or to gather empirical evidence for investigation purpose. It is a method to investigate a problem within its real life context through existing cases. The researcher has to carefully analyse making sure the parameter and variables in the existing case are the same as to the case that is being investigated. Using the findings from the case study, conclusions can be drawn regarding the topic that is being studied.
For example: A report mentioning the solution provided by a company to its client. The challenges they faced during initiation and deployment, the findings of the case and solutions they offered for the problems. Such case studies are used by most companies as it forms an empirical evidence for the company to promote in order to get more business.
- Observational method: Observational method is a process to observe and gather data from its target. Since it is a qualitative method it is time consuming and very personal. It can be said that observational research method is a part of ethnographic research which is also used to gather empirical evidence. This is usually a qualitative form of research, however in some cases it can be quantitative as well depending on what is being studied.
For example: setting up a research to observe a particular animal in the rain-forests of amazon. Such a research usually take a lot of time as observation has to be done for a set amount of time to study patterns or behavior of the subject. Another example used widely nowadays is to observe people shopping in a mall to figure out buying behavior of consumers.
- One-on-one interview: Such a method is purely qualitative and one of the most widely used. The reason being it enables a researcher get precise meaningful data if the right questions are asked. It is a conversational method where in-depth data can be gathered depending on where the conversation leads.
For example: A one-on-one interview with the finance minister to gather data on financial policies of the country and its implications on the public.
- Focus groups: Focus groups are used when a researcher wants to find answers to why, what and how questions. A small group is generally chosen for such a method and it is not necessary to interact with the group in person. A moderator is generally needed in case the group is being addressed in person. This is widely used by product companies to collect data about their brands and the product.
For example: A mobile phone manufacturer wanting to have a feedback on the dimensions of one of their models which is yet to be launched. Such studies help the company meet the demand of the customer and position their model appropriately in the market.
- Text analysis: Text analysis method is a little new compared to the other types. Such a method is used to analyse social life by going through images or words used by the individual. In today’s world, with social media playing a major part of everyone’s life, such a method enables the research to follow the pattern that relates to his study.
For example: A lot of companies ask for feedback from the customer in detail mentioning how satisfied are they with their customer support team. Such data enables the researcher to take appropriate decisions to make their support team better.
Sometimes a combination of the methods is also needed for some questions that cannot be answered using only one type of method especially when a researcher needs to gain a complete understanding of complex subject matter.
We recently published a blog that talks about examples of qualitative data in education ; why don’t you check it out for more ideas?
Learn More: Data Collection Methods: Types & Examples
Since empirical research is based on observation and capturing experiences, it is important to plan the steps to conduct the experiment and how to analyse it. This will enable the researcher to resolve problems or obstacles which can occur during the experiment.
Step #1: Define the purpose of the research
This is the step where the researcher has to answer questions like what exactly do I want to find out? What is the problem statement? Are there any issues in terms of the availability of knowledge, data, time or resources. Will this research be more beneficial than what it will cost.
Before going ahead, a researcher has to clearly define his purpose for the research and set up a plan to carry out further tasks.
Step #2 : Supporting theories and relevant literature
The researcher needs to find out if there are theories which can be linked to his research problem . He has to figure out if any theory can help him support his findings. All kind of relevant literature will help the researcher to find if there are others who have researched this before, or what are the problems faced during this research. The researcher will also have to set up assumptions and also find out if there is any history regarding his research problem
Step #3: Creation of Hypothesis and measurement
Before beginning the actual research he needs to provide himself a working hypothesis or guess what will be the probable result. Researcher has to set up variables, decide the environment for the research and find out how can he relate between the variables.
Researcher will also need to define the units of measurements, tolerable degree for errors, and find out if the measurement chosen will be acceptable by others.
Step #4: Methodology, research design and data collection
In this step, the researcher has to define a strategy for conducting his research. He has to set up experiments to collect data which will enable him to propose the hypothesis. The researcher will decide whether he will need experimental or non experimental method for conducting the research. The type of research design will vary depending on the field in which the research is being conducted. Last but not the least, the researcher will have to find out parameters that will affect the validity of the research design. Data collection will need to be done by choosing appropriate samples depending on the research question. To carry out the research, he can use one of the many sampling techniques. Once data collection is complete, researcher will have empirical data which needs to be analysed.
LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools
Step #5: Data Analysis and result
Data analysis can be done in two ways, qualitatively and quantitatively. Researcher will need to find out what qualitative method or quantitative method will be needed or will he need a combination of both. Depending on the unit of analysis of his data, he will know if his hypothesis is supported or rejected. Analyzing this data is the most important part to support his hypothesis.
Step #6: Conclusion
A report will need to be made with the findings of the research. The researcher can give the theories and literature that support his research. He can make suggestions or recommendations for further research on his topic.
A.D. de Groot, a famous dutch psychologist and a chess expert conducted some of the most notable experiments using chess in the 1940’s. During his study, he came up with a cycle which is consistent and now widely used to conduct empirical research. It consists of 5 phases with each phase being as important as the next one. The empirical cycle captures the process of coming up with hypothesis about how certain subjects work or behave and then testing these hypothesis against empirical data in a systematic and rigorous approach. It can be said that it characterizes the deductive approach to science. Following is the empirical cycle.
- Observation: At this phase an idea is sparked for proposing a hypothesis. During this phase empirical data is gathered using observation. For example: a particular species of flower bloom in a different color only during a specific season.
- Induction: Inductive reasoning is then carried out to form a general conclusion from the data gathered through observation. For example: As stated above it is observed that the species of flower blooms in a different color during a specific season. A researcher may ask a question “does the temperature in the season cause the color change in the flower?” He can assume that is the case, however it is a mere conjecture and hence an experiment needs to be set up to support this hypothesis. So he tags a few set of flowers kept at a different temperature and observes if they still change the color?
- Deduction: This phase helps the researcher to deduce a conclusion out of his experiment. This has to be based on logic and rationality to come up with specific unbiased results.For example: In the experiment, if the tagged flowers in a different temperature environment do not change the color then it can be concluded that temperature plays a role in changing the color of the bloom.
- Testing: This phase involves the researcher to return to empirical methods to put his hypothesis to the test. The researcher now needs to make sense of his data and hence needs to use statistical analysis plans to determine the temperature and bloom color relationship. If the researcher finds out that most flowers bloom a different color when exposed to the certain temperature and the others do not when the temperature is different, he has found support to his hypothesis. Please note this not proof but just a support to his hypothesis.
- Evaluation: This phase is generally forgotten by most but is an important one to keep gaining knowledge. During this phase the researcher puts forth the data he has collected, the support argument and his conclusion. The researcher also states the limitations for the experiment and his hypothesis and suggests tips for others to pick it up and continue a more in-depth research for others in the future. LEARN MORE: Population vs Sample
LEARN MORE: Population vs Sample
There is a reason why empirical research is one of the most widely used method. There are a few advantages associated with it. Following are a few of them.
- It is used to authenticate traditional research through various experiments and observations.
- This research methodology makes the research being conducted more competent and authentic.
- It enables a researcher understand the dynamic changes that can happen and change his strategy accordingly.
- The level of control in such a research is high so the researcher can control multiple variables.
- It plays a vital role in increasing internal validity .
Even though empirical research makes the research more competent and authentic, it does have a few disadvantages. Following are a few of them.
- Such a research needs patience as it can be very time consuming. The researcher has to collect data from multiple sources and the parameters involved are quite a few, which will lead to a time consuming research.
- Most of the time, a researcher will need to conduct research at different locations or in different environments, this can lead to an expensive affair.
- There are a few rules in which experiments can be performed and hence permissions are needed. Many a times, it is very difficult to get certain permissions to carry out different methods of this research.
- Collection of data can be a problem sometimes, as it has to be collected from a variety of sources through different methods.
LEARN ABOUT: Social Communication Questionnaire
Empirical research is important in today’s world because most people believe in something only that they can see, hear or experience. It is used to validate multiple hypothesis and increase human knowledge and continue doing it to keep advancing in various fields.
For example: Pharmaceutical companies use empirical research to try out a specific drug on controlled groups or random groups to study the effect and cause. This way, they prove certain theories they had proposed for the specific drug. Such research is very important as sometimes it can lead to finding a cure for a disease that has existed for many years. It is useful in science and many other fields like history, social sciences, business, etc.
LEARN ABOUT: 12 Best Tools for Researchers
With the advancement in today’s world, empirical research has become critical and a norm in many fields to support their hypothesis and gain more knowledge. The methods mentioned above are very useful for carrying out such research. However, a number of new methods will keep coming up as the nature of new investigative questions keeps getting unique or changing.
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What is Empirical Research? Definition, Methods, Examples
Appinio Research · 09.02.2024 · 36min read
Ever wondered how we gather the facts, unveil hidden truths, and make informed decisions in a world filled with questions? Empirical research holds the key.
In this guide, we'll delve deep into the art and science of empirical research, unraveling its methods, mysteries, and manifold applications. From defining the core principles to mastering data analysis and reporting findings, we're here to equip you with the knowledge and tools to navigate the empirical landscape.
What is Empirical Research?
Empirical research is the cornerstone of scientific inquiry, providing a systematic and structured approach to investigating the world around us. It is the process of gathering and analyzing empirical or observable data to test hypotheses, answer research questions, or gain insights into various phenomena. This form of research relies on evidence derived from direct observation or experimentation, allowing researchers to draw conclusions based on real-world data rather than purely theoretical or speculative reasoning.
Characteristics of Empirical Research
Empirical research is characterized by several key features:
- Observation and Measurement : It involves the systematic observation or measurement of variables, events, or behaviors.
- Data Collection : Researchers collect data through various methods, such as surveys, experiments, observations, or interviews.
- Testable Hypotheses : Empirical research often starts with testable hypotheses that are evaluated using collected data.
- Quantitative or Qualitative Data : Data can be quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (non-numerical), depending on the research design.
- Statistical Analysis : Quantitative data often undergo statistical analysis to determine patterns , relationships, or significance.
- Objectivity and Replicability : Empirical research strives for objectivity, minimizing researcher bias . It should be replicable, allowing other researchers to conduct the same study to verify results.
- Conclusions and Generalizations : Empirical research generates findings based on data and aims to make generalizations about larger populations or phenomena.
Importance of Empirical Research
Empirical research plays a pivotal role in advancing knowledge across various disciplines. Its importance extends to academia, industry, and society as a whole. Here are several reasons why empirical research is essential:
- Evidence-Based Knowledge : Empirical research provides a solid foundation of evidence-based knowledge. It enables us to test hypotheses, confirm or refute theories, and build a robust understanding of the world.
- Scientific Progress : In the scientific community, empirical research fuels progress by expanding the boundaries of existing knowledge. It contributes to the development of theories and the formulation of new research questions.
- Problem Solving : Empirical research is instrumental in addressing real-world problems and challenges. It offers insights and data-driven solutions to complex issues in fields like healthcare, economics, and environmental science.
- Informed Decision-Making : In policymaking, business, and healthcare, empirical research informs decision-makers by providing data-driven insights. It guides strategies, investments, and policies for optimal outcomes.
- Quality Assurance : Empirical research is essential for quality assurance and validation in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, manufacturing, and technology. It ensures that products and processes meet established standards.
- Continuous Improvement : Businesses and organizations use empirical research to evaluate performance, customer satisfaction , and product effectiveness. This data-driven approach fosters continuous improvement and innovation.
- Human Advancement : Empirical research in fields like medicine and psychology contributes to the betterment of human health and well-being. It leads to medical breakthroughs, improved therapies, and enhanced psychological interventions.
- Critical Thinking and Problem Solving : Engaging in empirical research fosters critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and a deep appreciation for evidence-based decision-making.
Empirical research empowers us to explore, understand, and improve the world around us. It forms the bedrock of scientific inquiry and drives progress in countless domains, shaping our understanding of both the natural and social sciences.
How to Conduct Empirical Research?
So, you've decided to dive into the world of empirical research. Let's begin by exploring the crucial steps involved in getting started with your research project.
1. Select a Research Topic
Selecting the right research topic is the cornerstone of a successful empirical study. It's essential to choose a topic that not only piques your interest but also aligns with your research goals and objectives. Here's how to go about it:
- Identify Your Interests : Start by reflecting on your passions and interests. What topics fascinate you the most? Your enthusiasm will be your driving force throughout the research process.
- Brainstorm Ideas : Engage in brainstorming sessions to generate potential research topics. Consider the questions you've always wanted to answer or the issues that intrigue you.
- Relevance and Significance : Assess the relevance and significance of your chosen topic. Does it contribute to existing knowledge? Is it a pressing issue in your field of study or the broader community?
- Feasibility : Evaluate the feasibility of your research topic. Do you have access to the necessary resources, data, and participants (if applicable)?
2. Formulate Research Questions
Once you've narrowed down your research topic, the next step is to formulate clear and precise research questions . These questions will guide your entire research process and shape your study's direction. To create effective research questions:
- Specificity : Ensure that your research questions are specific and focused. Vague or overly broad questions can lead to inconclusive results.
- Relevance : Your research questions should directly relate to your chosen topic. They should address gaps in knowledge or contribute to solving a particular problem.
- Testability : Ensure that your questions are testable through empirical methods. You should be able to gather data and analyze it to answer these questions.
- Avoid Bias : Craft your questions in a way that avoids leading or biased language. Maintain neutrality to uphold the integrity of your research.
3. Review Existing Literature
Before you embark on your empirical research journey, it's essential to immerse yourself in the existing body of literature related to your chosen topic. This step, often referred to as a literature review, serves several purposes:
- Contextualization : Understand the historical context and current state of research in your field. What have previous studies found, and what questions remain unanswered?
- Identifying Gaps : Identify gaps or areas where existing research falls short. These gaps will help you formulate meaningful research questions and hypotheses.
- Theory Development : If your study is theoretical, consider how existing theories apply to your topic. If it's empirical, understand how previous studies have approached data collection and analysis.
- Methodological Insights : Learn from the methodologies employed in previous research. What methods were successful, and what challenges did researchers face?
4. Define Variables
Variables are fundamental components of empirical research. They are the factors or characteristics that can change or be manipulated during your study. Properly defining and categorizing variables is crucial for the clarity and validity of your research. Here's what you need to know:
- Independent Variables : These are the variables that you, as the researcher, manipulate or control. They are the "cause" in cause-and-effect relationships.
- Dependent Variables : Dependent variables are the outcomes or responses that you measure or observe. They are the "effect" influenced by changes in independent variables.
- Operational Definitions : To ensure consistency and clarity, provide operational definitions for your variables. Specify how you will measure or manipulate each variable.
- Control Variables : In some studies, controlling for other variables that may influence your dependent variable is essential. These are known as control variables.
Understanding these foundational aspects of empirical research will set a solid foundation for the rest of your journey. Now that you've grasped the essentials of getting started, let's delve deeper into the intricacies of research design.
Empirical Research Design
Now that you've selected your research topic, formulated research questions, and defined your variables, it's time to delve into the heart of your empirical research journey – research design . This pivotal step determines how you will collect data and what methods you'll employ to answer your research questions. Let's explore the various facets of research design in detail.
Types of Empirical Research
Empirical research can take on several forms, each with its own unique approach and methodologies. Understanding the different types of empirical research will help you choose the most suitable design for your study. Here are some common types:
- Experimental Research : In this type, researchers manipulate one or more independent variables to observe their impact on dependent variables. It's highly controlled and often conducted in a laboratory setting.
- Observational Research : Observational research involves the systematic observation of subjects or phenomena without intervention. Researchers are passive observers, documenting behaviors, events, or patterns.
- Survey Research : Surveys are used to collect data through structured questionnaires or interviews. This method is efficient for gathering information from a large number of participants.
- Case Study Research : Case studies focus on in-depth exploration of one or a few cases. Researchers gather detailed information through various sources such as interviews, documents, and observations.
- Qualitative Research : Qualitative research aims to understand behaviors, experiences, and opinions in depth. It often involves open-ended questions, interviews, and thematic analysis.
- Quantitative Research : Quantitative research collects numerical data and relies on statistical analysis to draw conclusions. It involves structured questionnaires, experiments, and surveys.
Your choice of research type should align with your research questions and objectives. Experimental research, for example, is ideal for testing cause-and-effect relationships, while qualitative research is more suitable for exploring complex phenomena.
Experimental Design
Experimental research is a systematic approach to studying causal relationships. It's characterized by the manipulation of one or more independent variables while controlling for other factors. Here are some key aspects of experimental design:
- Control and Experimental Groups : Participants are randomly assigned to either a control group or an experimental group. The independent variable is manipulated for the experimental group but not for the control group.
- Randomization : Randomization is crucial to eliminate bias in group assignment. It ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being in either group.
- Hypothesis Testing : Experimental research often involves hypothesis testing. Researchers formulate hypotheses about the expected effects of the independent variable and use statistical analysis to test these hypotheses.
Observational Design
Observational research entails careful and systematic observation of subjects or phenomena. It's advantageous when you want to understand natural behaviors or events. Key aspects of observational design include:
- Participant Observation : Researchers immerse themselves in the environment they are studying. They become part of the group being observed, allowing for a deep understanding of behaviors.
- Non-Participant Observation : In non-participant observation, researchers remain separate from the subjects. They observe and document behaviors without direct involvement.
- Data Collection Methods : Observational research can involve various data collection methods, such as field notes, video recordings, photographs, or coding of observed behaviors.
Survey Design
Surveys are a popular choice for collecting data from a large number of participants. Effective survey design is essential to ensure the validity and reliability of your data. Consider the following:
- Questionnaire Design : Create clear and concise questions that are easy for participants to understand. Avoid leading or biased questions.
- Sampling Methods : Decide on the appropriate sampling method for your study, whether it's random, stratified, or convenience sampling.
- Data Collection Tools : Choose the right tools for data collection, whether it's paper surveys, online questionnaires, or face-to-face interviews.
Case Study Design
Case studies are an in-depth exploration of one or a few cases to gain a deep understanding of a particular phenomenon. Key aspects of case study design include:
- Single Case vs. Multiple Case Studies : Decide whether you'll focus on a single case or multiple cases. Single case studies are intensive and allow for detailed examination, while multiple case studies provide comparative insights.
- Data Collection Methods : Gather data through interviews, observations, document analysis, or a combination of these methods.
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
In empirical research, you'll often encounter the distinction between qualitative and quantitative research . Here's a closer look at these two approaches:
- Qualitative Research : Qualitative research seeks an in-depth understanding of human behavior, experiences, and perspectives. It involves open-ended questions, interviews, and the analysis of textual or narrative data. Qualitative research is exploratory and often used when the research question is complex and requires a nuanced understanding.
- Quantitative Research : Quantitative research collects numerical data and employs statistical analysis to draw conclusions. It involves structured questionnaires, experiments, and surveys. Quantitative research is ideal for testing hypotheses and establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
Understanding the various research design options is crucial in determining the most appropriate approach for your study. Your choice should align with your research questions, objectives, and the nature of the phenomenon you're investigating.
Data Collection for Empirical Research
Now that you've established your research design, it's time to roll up your sleeves and collect the data that will fuel your empirical research. Effective data collection is essential for obtaining accurate and reliable results.
Sampling Methods
Sampling methods are critical in empirical research, as they determine the subset of individuals or elements from your target population that you will study. Here are some standard sampling methods:
- Random Sampling : Random sampling ensures that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. It minimizes bias and is often used in quantitative research.
- Stratified Sampling : Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subgroups or strata based on specific characteristics (e.g., age, gender, location). Samples are then randomly selected from each stratum, ensuring representation of all subgroups.
- Convenience Sampling : Convenience sampling involves selecting participants who are readily available or easily accessible. While it's convenient, it may introduce bias and limit the generalizability of results.
- Snowball Sampling : Snowball sampling is instrumental when studying hard-to-reach or hidden populations. One participant leads you to another, creating a "snowball" effect. This method is common in qualitative research.
- Purposive Sampling : In purposive sampling, researchers deliberately select participants who meet specific criteria relevant to their research questions. It's often used in qualitative studies to gather in-depth information.
The choice of sampling method depends on the nature of your research, available resources, and the degree of precision required. It's crucial to carefully consider your sampling strategy to ensure that your sample accurately represents your target population.
Data Collection Instruments
Data collection instruments are the tools you use to gather information from your participants or sources. These instruments should be designed to capture the data you need accurately. Here are some popular data collection instruments:
- Questionnaires : Questionnaires consist of structured questions with predefined response options. When designing questionnaires, consider the clarity of questions, the order of questions, and the response format (e.g., Likert scale , multiple-choice).
- Interviews : Interviews involve direct communication between the researcher and participants. They can be structured (with predetermined questions) or unstructured (open-ended). Effective interviews require active listening and probing for deeper insights.
- Observations : Observations entail systematically and objectively recording behaviors, events, or phenomena. Researchers must establish clear criteria for what to observe, how to record observations, and when to observe.
- Surveys : Surveys are a common data collection instrument for quantitative research. They can be administered through various means, including online surveys, paper surveys, and telephone surveys.
- Documents and Archives : In some cases, data may be collected from existing documents, records, or archives. Ensure that the sources are reliable, relevant, and properly documented.
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Data Collection Procedures
Data collection procedures outline the step-by-step process for gathering data. These procedures should be meticulously planned and executed to maintain the integrity of your research.
- Training : If you have a research team, ensure that they are trained in data collection methods and protocols. Consistency in data collection is crucial.
- Pilot Testing : Before launching your data collection, conduct a pilot test with a small group to identify any potential problems with your instruments or procedures. Make necessary adjustments based on feedback.
- Data Recording : Establish a systematic method for recording data. This may include timestamps, codes, or identifiers for each data point.
- Data Security : Safeguard the confidentiality and security of collected data. Ensure that only authorized individuals have access to the data.
- Data Storage : Properly organize and store your data in a secure location, whether in physical or digital form. Back up data to prevent loss.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations are paramount in empirical research, as they ensure the well-being and rights of participants are protected.
- Informed Consent : Obtain informed consent from participants, providing clear information about the research purpose, procedures, risks, and their right to withdraw at any time.
- Privacy and Confidentiality : Protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants. Ensure that data is anonymized and sensitive information is kept confidential.
- Beneficence : Ensure that your research benefits participants and society while minimizing harm. Consider the potential risks and benefits of your study.
- Honesty and Integrity : Conduct research with honesty and integrity. Report findings accurately and transparently, even if they are not what you expected.
- Respect for Participants : Treat participants with respect, dignity, and sensitivity to cultural differences. Avoid any form of coercion or manipulation.
- Institutional Review Board (IRB) : If required, seek approval from an IRB or ethics committee before conducting your research, particularly when working with human participants.
Adhering to ethical guidelines is not only essential for the ethical conduct of research but also crucial for the credibility and validity of your study. Ethical research practices build trust between researchers and participants and contribute to the advancement of knowledge with integrity.
With a solid understanding of data collection, including sampling methods, instruments, procedures, and ethical considerations, you are now well-equipped to gather the data needed to answer your research questions.
Empirical Research Data Analysis
Now comes the exciting phase of data analysis, where the raw data you've diligently collected starts to yield insights and answers to your research questions. We will explore the various aspects of data analysis, from preparing your data to drawing meaningful conclusions through statistics and visualization.
Data Preparation
Data preparation is the crucial first step in data analysis. It involves cleaning, organizing, and transforming your raw data into a format that is ready for analysis. Effective data preparation ensures the accuracy and reliability of your results.
- Data Cleaning : Identify and rectify errors, missing values, and inconsistencies in your dataset. This may involve correcting typos, removing outliers, and imputing missing data.
- Data Coding : Assign numerical values or codes to categorical variables to make them suitable for statistical analysis. For example, converting "Yes" and "No" to 1 and 0.
- Data Transformation : Transform variables as needed to meet the assumptions of the statistical tests you plan to use. Common transformations include logarithmic or square root transformations.
- Data Integration : If your data comes from multiple sources, integrate it into a unified dataset, ensuring that variables match and align.
- Data Documentation : Maintain clear documentation of all data preparation steps, as well as the rationale behind each decision. This transparency is essential for replicability.
Effective data preparation lays the foundation for accurate and meaningful analysis. It allows you to trust the results that will follow in the subsequent stages.
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics help you summarize and make sense of your data by providing a clear overview of its key characteristics. These statistics are essential for understanding the central tendencies, variability, and distribution of your variables. Descriptive statistics include:
- Measures of Central Tendency : These include the mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (most frequent value). They help you understand the typical or central value of your data.
- Measures of Dispersion : Measures like the range, variance, and standard deviation provide insights into the spread or variability of your data points.
- Frequency Distributions : Creating frequency distributions or histograms allows you to visualize the distribution of your data across different values or categories.
Descriptive statistics provide the initial insights needed to understand your data's basic characteristics, which can inform further analysis.
Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics take your analysis to the next level by allowing you to make inferences or predictions about a larger population based on your sample data. These methods help you test hypotheses and draw meaningful conclusions. Key concepts in inferential statistics include:
- Hypothesis Testing : Hypothesis tests (e.g., t-tests , chi-squared tests ) help you determine whether observed differences or associations in your data are statistically significant or occurred by chance.
- Confidence Intervals : Confidence intervals provide a range within which population parameters (e.g., population mean) are likely to fall based on your sample data.
- Regression Analysis : Regression models (linear, logistic, etc.) help you explore relationships between variables and make predictions.
- Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) : ANOVA tests are used to compare means between multiple groups, allowing you to assess whether differences are statistically significant.
Chi-Square Calculator :
t-Test Calculator :
One-way ANOVA Calculator :
Inferential statistics are powerful tools for drawing conclusions from your data and assessing the generalizability of your findings to the broader population.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis is employed when working with non-numerical data, such as text, interviews, or open-ended survey responses. It focuses on understanding the underlying themes, patterns, and meanings within qualitative data. Qualitative analysis techniques include:
- Thematic Analysis : Identifying and analyzing recurring themes or patterns within textual data.
- Content Analysis : Categorizing and coding qualitative data to extract meaningful insights.
- Grounded Theory : Developing theories or frameworks based on emergent themes from the data.
- Narrative Analysis : Examining the structure and content of narratives to uncover meaning.
Qualitative data analysis provides a rich and nuanced understanding of complex phenomena and human experiences.
Data Visualization
Data visualization is the art of representing data graphically to make complex information more understandable and accessible. Effective data visualization can reveal patterns, trends, and outliers in your data. Common types of data visualization include:
- Bar Charts and Histograms : Used to display the distribution of categorical data or discrete data .
- Line Charts : Ideal for showing trends and changes in data over time.
- Scatter Plots : Visualize relationships and correlations between two variables.
- Pie Charts : Display the composition of a whole in terms of its parts.
- Heatmaps : Depict patterns and relationships in multidimensional data through color-coding.
- Box Plots : Provide a summary of the data distribution, including outliers.
- Interactive Dashboards : Create dynamic visualizations that allow users to explore data interactively.
Data visualization not only enhances your understanding of the data but also serves as a powerful communication tool to convey your findings to others.
As you embark on the data analysis phase of your empirical research, remember that the specific methods and techniques you choose will depend on your research questions, data type, and objectives. Effective data analysis transforms raw data into valuable insights, bringing you closer to the answers you seek.
How to Report Empirical Research Results?
At this stage, you get to share your empirical research findings with the world. Effective reporting and presentation of your results are crucial for communicating your research's impact and insights.
1. Write the Research Paper
Writing a research paper is the culmination of your empirical research journey. It's where you synthesize your findings, provide context, and contribute to the body of knowledge in your field.
- Title and Abstract : Craft a clear and concise title that reflects your research's essence. The abstract should provide a brief summary of your research objectives, methods, findings, and implications.
- Introduction : In the introduction, introduce your research topic, state your research questions or hypotheses, and explain the significance of your study. Provide context by discussing relevant literature.
- Methods : Describe your research design, data collection methods, and sampling procedures. Be precise and transparent, allowing readers to understand how you conducted your study.
- Results : Present your findings in a clear and organized manner. Use tables, graphs, and statistical analyses to support your results. Avoid interpreting your findings in this section; focus on the presentation of raw data.
- Discussion : Interpret your findings and discuss their implications. Relate your results to your research questions and the existing literature. Address any limitations of your study and suggest avenues for future research.
- Conclusion : Summarize the key points of your research and its significance. Restate your main findings and their implications.
- References : Cite all sources used in your research following a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). Ensure accuracy and consistency in your citations.
- Appendices : Include any supplementary material, such as questionnaires, data coding sheets, or additional analyses, in the appendices.
Writing a research paper is a skill that improves with practice. Ensure clarity, coherence, and conciseness in your writing to make your research accessible to a broader audience.
2. Create Visuals and Tables
Visuals and tables are powerful tools for presenting complex data in an accessible and understandable manner.
- Clarity : Ensure that your visuals and tables are clear and easy to interpret. Use descriptive titles and labels.
- Consistency : Maintain consistency in formatting, such as font size and style, across all visuals and tables.
- Appropriateness : Choose the most suitable visual representation for your data. Bar charts, line graphs, and scatter plots work well for different types of data.
- Simplicity : Avoid clutter and unnecessary details. Focus on conveying the main points.
- Accessibility : Make sure your visuals and tables are accessible to a broad audience, including those with visual impairments.
- Captions : Include informative captions that explain the significance of each visual or table.
Compelling visuals and tables enhance the reader's understanding of your research and can be the key to conveying complex information efficiently.
3. Interpret Findings
Interpreting your findings is where you bridge the gap between data and meaning. It's your opportunity to provide context, discuss implications, and offer insights. When interpreting your findings:
- Relate to Research Questions : Discuss how your findings directly address your research questions or hypotheses.
- Compare with Literature : Analyze how your results align with or deviate from previous research in your field. What insights can you draw from these comparisons?
- Discuss Limitations : Be transparent about the limitations of your study. Address any constraints, biases, or potential sources of error.
- Practical Implications : Explore the real-world implications of your findings. How can they be applied or inform decision-making?
- Future Research Directions : Suggest areas for future research based on the gaps or unanswered questions that emerged from your study.
Interpreting findings goes beyond simply presenting data; it's about weaving a narrative that helps readers grasp the significance of your research in the broader context.
With your research paper written, structured, and enriched with visuals, and your findings expertly interpreted, you are now prepared to communicate your research effectively. Sharing your insights and contributing to the body of knowledge in your field is a significant accomplishment in empirical research.
Examples of Empirical Research
To solidify your understanding of empirical research, let's delve into some real-world examples across different fields. These examples will illustrate how empirical research is applied to gather data, analyze findings, and draw conclusions.
Social Sciences
In the realm of social sciences, consider a sociological study exploring the impact of socioeconomic status on educational attainment. Researchers gather data from a diverse group of individuals, including their family backgrounds, income levels, and academic achievements.
Through statistical analysis, they can identify correlations and trends, revealing whether individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are less likely to attain higher levels of education. This empirical research helps shed light on societal inequalities and informs policymakers on potential interventions to address disparities in educational access.
Environmental Science
Environmental scientists often employ empirical research to assess the effects of environmental changes. For instance, researchers studying the impact of climate change on wildlife might collect data on animal populations, weather patterns, and habitat conditions over an extended period.
By analyzing this empirical data, they can identify correlations between climate fluctuations and changes in wildlife behavior, migration patterns, or population sizes. This empirical research is crucial for understanding the ecological consequences of climate change and informing conservation efforts.
Business and Economics
In the business world, empirical research is essential for making data-driven decisions. Consider a market research study conducted by a business seeking to launch a new product. They collect data through surveys , focus groups , and consumer behavior analysis.
By examining this empirical data, the company can gauge consumer preferences, demand, and potential market size. Empirical research in business helps guide product development, pricing strategies, and marketing campaigns, increasing the likelihood of a successful product launch.
Psychological studies frequently rely on empirical research to understand human behavior and cognition. For instance, a psychologist interested in examining the impact of stress on memory might design an experiment. Participants are exposed to stress-inducing situations, and their memory performance is assessed through various tasks.
By analyzing the data collected, the psychologist can determine whether stress has a significant effect on memory recall. This empirical research contributes to our understanding of the complex interplay between psychological factors and cognitive processes.
These examples highlight the versatility and applicability of empirical research across diverse fields. Whether in medicine, social sciences, environmental science, business, or psychology, empirical research serves as a fundamental tool for gaining insights, testing hypotheses, and driving advancements in knowledge and practice.
Conclusion for Empirical Research
Empirical research is a powerful tool for gaining insights, testing hypotheses, and making informed decisions. By following the steps outlined in this guide, you've learned how to select research topics, collect data, analyze findings, and effectively communicate your research to the world. Remember, empirical research is a journey of discovery, and each step you take brings you closer to a deeper understanding of the world around you. Whether you're a scientist, a student, or someone curious about the process, the principles of empirical research empower you to explore, learn, and contribute to the ever-expanding realm of knowledge.
How to Collect Data for Empirical Research?
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What is Convenience Sampling? Definition, Method, Examples
Penn State University Libraries
Empirical research in the social sciences and education.
- What is Empirical Research and How to Read It
- Finding Empirical Research in Library Databases
- Designing Empirical Research
- Ethics, Cultural Responsiveness, and Anti-Racism in Research
- Citing, Writing, and Presenting Your Work
Contact the Librarian at your campus for more help!
Introduction: What is Empirical Research?
Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.
How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the subheadings within the article, book, or report and look for a description of the research "methodology." Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?
Key characteristics to look for:
- Specific research questions to be answered
- Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied
- Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)
Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:
- Introduction: sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
- Methodology: sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools used in the present study
- Results: sometimes called "findings" -- what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
- Discussion: sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies
Reading and Evaluating Scholarly Materials
Reading research can be a challenge. However, the tutorials and videos below can help. They explain what scholarly articles look like, how to read them, and how to evaluate them:
- CRAAP Checklist A frequently-used checklist that helps you examine the currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, and purpose of an information source.
- IF I APPLY A newer model of evaluating sources which encourages you to think about your own biases as a reader, as well as concerns about the item you are reading.
- Credo Video: How to Read Scholarly Materials (4 min.)
- Credo Tutorial: How to Read Scholarly Materials
- Credo Tutorial: Evaluating Information
- Credo Video: Evaluating Statistics (4 min.)
- Credo Tutorial: Evaluating for Diverse Points of View
- Next: Finding Empirical Research in Library Databases >>
- Last Updated: Aug 13, 2024 3:16 PM
- URL: https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/emp
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- What is empirical research: Methods, types & examples
Defne Çobanoğlu
Having opinions on matters based on observation is okay sometimes. Same as having theories on the subject you want to solve. However, some theories need to be tested. Just like Robert Oppenheimer says, “Theory will take you only so far .”
In that case, when you have your research question ready and you want to make sure it is correct, the next step would be experimentation. Because only then you can test your ideas and collect tangible information. Now, let us start with the empirical research definition:
- What is empirical research?
Empirical research is a research type where the aim of the study is based on finding concrete and provable evidence . The researcher using this method to draw conclusions can use both quantitative and qualitative methods. Different than theoretical research, empirical research uses scientific experimentation and investigation.
Using experimentation makes sense when you need to have tangible evidence to act on whatever you are planning to do. As the researcher, you can be a marketer who is planning on creating a new ad for the target audience, or you can be an educator who wants the best for the students. No matter how big or small, data gathered from the real world using this research helps break down the question at hand.
- When to use empirical research?
Empirical research methods are used when the researcher needs to gather data analysis on direct, observable, and measurable data. Research findings are a great way to make grounded ideas. Here are some situations when one may need to do empirical research:
1. When quantitative or qualitative data is needed
There are times when a researcher, marketer, or producer needs to gather data on specific research questions to make an informed decision. And the concrete data gathered in the research process gives a good starting point.
2. When you need to test a hypothesis
When you have a hypothesis on a subject, you can test the hypothesis through observation or experiment. Making a planned study is a great way to collect information and test whether or not your hypothesis is correct.
3. When you want to establish causality
Experimental research is a good way to explore whether or not there is any correlation between two variables. Researchers usually establish causality by changing a variable and observing if the independent variable changes accordingly.
- Types of empirical research
The aim of empirical research is to collect information about a subject from the people by doing experimentation and other data collection methods. However, the methods and data collected are divided into two groups: one collects numerical data, and the other one collects opinion-like data. Let us see the difference between these two types:
Quantitative research
Quantitative research methods are used to collect data in a numerical way. Therefore, the results gathered by these methods will be numbers, statistics, charts, etc. The results can be used to quantify behaviors, opinions, and other variables. Quantitative research methods are surveys, questionnaires, and experimental research.
Qualitiative research
Qualitative research methods are not used to collect numerical answers, instead, they are used to collect the participants’ reasons, opinions, and other meaningful aspects. Qualitative research methods include case studies, observations, interviews, focus groups, and text analysis.
- 5 steps to conduct empirical research
Necessary steps for empirical research
When you want to collect direct and concrete data on a subject, empirical research is a great way to go. And, just like every other project and research, it is best to have a clear structure in mind. This is even more important in studies that may take a long time, such as experiments that take years. Let us look at a clear plan on how to do empirical research:
1. Define the research question
The very first step of every study is to have the question you will explore ready. Because you do not want to change your mind in the middle of the study after investing and spending time on the experimentation.
2. Go through relevant literature
This is the step where you sit down and do a desk research where you gather relevant data and see if other researchers have tried to explore similar research questions. If so, you can see how well they were able to answer the question or what kind of difficulties they faced during the research process.
3. Decide on the methodology
Once you are done going through the relevant literature, you can decide on which method or methods you can use. The appropriate methods are observation, experimentation, surveys, interviews, focus groups, etc.
4. Do data analysis
When you get to this step, it means you have successfully gathered enough data to make a data analysis. Now, all you need to do is look at the data you collected and make an informed analysis.
5. Conclusion
This is the last step, where you are finished with the experimentation and data analysis process. Now, it is time to decide what to do with this information. You can publish a paper and make informed decisions about whatever your goal is.
- Empirical research methodologies
Some essential methodologies to conduct empirical research
The aim of this type of research is to explore brand-new evidence and facts. Therefore, the methods should be primary and gathered in real life, directly from the people. There is more than one method for this goal, and it is up to the researcher to use which one(s). Let us see the methods of empirical research:
- Observation
The method of observation is a great way to collect information on people without the effect of interference. The researcher can choose the appropriate area, time, or situation and observe the people and their interactions with one another. The researcher can be just an outside observer or can be a participant as an observer or a full participant.
- Experimentation
The experimentation process can be done in the real world by intervening in some elements to unify the environment for all participants. This method can also be done in a laboratory environment. The experimentation process is good for being able to change the variables according to the aim of the study.
The case study method is done by making an in-depth analysis of already existing cases. When the parameters and variables are similar to the research question at hand, it is wise to go through what was researched before.
- Focus groups
The case study method is done by using a group of individuals or multiple groups and using their opinions, characteristics, and responses. The scientists gather the data from this group and generalize it to the whole population.
Surveys are an effective way to gather data directly from people. It is a systematic approach to collecting information. If it is done in an online setting as an online survey , it would be even easier to reach out to people and ask their opinions in open-ended or close-ended questions.
Interviews are similar to surveys as you are using questions to collect information and opinions of the people. Unlike a survey, this process is done face-to-face, as a phone call, or as a video call.
- Advantages of empirical research
Empirical research is effective for many reasons, and helps researchers from numerous fields. Here are some advantages of empirical research to have in mind for your next research:
- Empirical research improves the internal validity of the study.
- Empirical evidence gathered from the study is used to authenticate the research question.
- Collecting provable evidence is important for the success of the study.
- The researcher is able to make informed decisions based on the data collected using empirical research.
- Disadvantages of empirical research
After learning about the positive aspects of empirical research, it is time to mention the negative aspects. Because this type may not be suitable for everyone and the researcher should be mindful of the disadvantages of empirical research. Here are the disadvantages of empirical research:
- As it is similar to other research types, a case study where experimentation is included will be time-consuming no matter what. It has more steps and variables than concluding a secondary research.
- There are a lot of variables that need to be controlled and considered. Therefore, it may be a challenging task to be mindful of all the details.
- Doing evidence-based research can be expensive if you need to complete it on a large scale.
- When you are conducting an experiment, you may need some waivers and permissions.
- Frequently asked questions about empirical research
Empirical research is one of the many research types, and there may be some questions in mind about its similarities and differences to other research types.
Is empirical research qualitative or quantitative?
The data collected by empirical research can be qualitative, quantitative, or a mix of both. It is up to the aim of researcher to what kind of data is needed and searched for.
Is empirical research the same as quantitative research?
As quantitative research heavily relies on data collection methods of observation and experimentation, it is, in nature, an empirical study. Some professors may even use the terms interchangeably. However, that does not mean that empirical research is only a quantitative one.
What is the difference between theoretical and empirical research?
Empirical studies are based on data collection to prove theories or answer questions, and it is done by using methods such as observation and experimentation. Therefore, empirical research relies on finding evidence that backs up theories. On the other hand, theoretical research relies on theorizing on empirical research data and trying to make connections and correlations.
What is the difference between conceptual and empirical research?
Conceptual research is about thoughts and ideas and does not involve any kind of experimentation. Empirical research, on the other hand, works with provable data and hard evidence.
What is the difference between empirical vs applied research?
Some scientists may use these two terms interchangeably however, there is a difference between them. Applied research involves applying theories to solve real-life problems. On the other hand, empirical research involves the obtaining and analysis of data to test hypotheses and theories.
- Final words
Empirical research is a good means when the goal of your study is to find concrete data to go with. You may need to do empirical research when you need to test a theory, establish causality, or need qualitative/quantitative data. For example, you are a scientist and want to know if certain colors have an effect on people’s moods, or you are a marketer and want to test your theory on ad places on websites.
In both scenarios, you can collect information by using empirical research methods and make informed decisions afterward. These are just the two of empirical research examples. This research type can be applied to many areas of work life and social sciences. Lastly, for all your research needs, you can visit forms.app to use its many useful features and over 1000 form and survey templates!
Defne is a content writer at forms.app. She is also a translator specializing in literary translation. Defne loves reading, writing, and translating professionally and as a hobby. Her expertise lies in survey research, research methodologies, content writing, and translation.
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- What is Empirical Research Study? [Examples & Method]
The bulk of human decisions relies on evidence, that is, what can be measured or proven as valid. In choosing between plausible alternatives, individuals are more likely to tilt towards the option that is proven to work, and this is the same approach adopted in empirical research.
In empirical research, the researcher arrives at outcomes by testing his or her empirical evidence using qualitative or quantitative methods of observation, as determined by the nature of the research. An empirical research study is set apart from other research approaches by its methodology and features hence; it is important for every researcher to know what constitutes this investigation method.
What is Empirical Research?
Empirical research is a type of research methodology that makes use of verifiable evidence in order to arrive at research outcomes. In other words, this type of research relies solely on evidence obtained through observation or scientific data collection methods.
Empirical research can be carried out using qualitative or quantitative observation methods , depending on the data sample, that is, quantifiable data or non-numerical data . Unlike theoretical research that depends on preconceived notions about the research variables, empirical research carries a scientific investigation to measure the experimental probability of the research variables
Characteristics of Empirical Research
- Research Questions
An empirical research begins with a set of research questions that guide the investigation. In many cases, these research questions constitute the research hypothesis which is tested using qualitative and quantitative methods as dictated by the nature of the research.
In an empirical research study, the research questions are built around the core of the research, that is, the central issue which the research seeks to resolve. They also determine the course of the research by highlighting the specific objectives and aims of the systematic investigation.
- Definition of the Research Variables
The research variables are clearly defined in terms of their population, types, characteristics, and behaviors. In other words, the data sample is clearly delimited and placed within the context of the research.
- Description of the Research Methodology
An empirical research also clearly outlines the methods adopted in the systematic investigation. Here, the research process is described in detail including the selection criteria for the data sample, qualitative or quantitative research methods plus testing instruments.
An empirical research is usually divided into 4 parts which are the introduction, methodology, findings, and discussions. The introduction provides a background of the empirical study while the methodology describes the research design, processes, and tools for the systematic investigation.
The findings refer to the research outcomes and they can be outlined as statistical data or in the form of information obtained through the qualitative observation of research variables. The discussions highlight the significance of the study and its contributions to knowledge.
Uses of Empirical Research
Without any doubt, empirical research is one of the most useful methods of systematic investigation. It can be used for validating multiple research hypotheses in different fields including Law, Medicine, and Anthropology.
- Empirical Research in Law : In Law, empirical research is used to study institutions, rules, procedures, and personnel of the law, with a view to understanding how they operate and what effects they have. It makes use of direct methods rather than secondary sources, and this helps you to arrive at more valid conclusions.
- Empirical Research in Medicine : In medicine, empirical research is used to test and validate multiple hypotheses and increase human knowledge.
- Empirical Research in Anthropology : In anthropology, empirical research is used as an evidence-based systematic method of inquiry into patterns of human behaviors and cultures. This helps to validate and advance human knowledge.
Discover how Extrapolation Powers statistical research: Definition, examples, types, and applications explained.
The Empirical Research Cycle
The empirical research cycle is a 5-phase cycle that outlines the systematic processes for conducting and empirical research. It was developed by Dutch psychologist, A.D. de Groot in the 1940s and it aligns 5 important stages that can be viewed as deductive approaches to empirical research.
In the empirical research methodological cycle, all processes are interconnected and none of the processes is more important than the other. This cycle clearly outlines the different phases involved in generating the research hypotheses and testing these hypotheses systematically using the empirical data.
- Observation: This is the process of gathering empirical data for the research. At this stage, the researcher gathers relevant empirical data using qualitative or quantitative observation methods, and this goes ahead to inform the research hypotheses.
- Induction: At this stage, the researcher makes use of inductive reasoning in order to arrive at a general probable research conclusion based on his or her observation. The researcher generates a general assumption that attempts to explain the empirical data and s/he goes on to observe the empirical data in line with this assumption.
- Deduction: This is the deductive reasoning stage. This is where the researcher generates hypotheses by applying logic and rationality to his or her observation.
- Testing: Here, the researcher puts the hypotheses to test using qualitative or quantitative research methods. In the testing stage, the researcher combines relevant instruments of systematic investigation with empirical methods in order to arrive at objective results that support or negate the research hypotheses.
- Evaluation: The evaluation research is the final stage in an empirical research study. Here, the research outlines the empirical data, the research findings and the supporting arguments plus any challenges encountered during the research process.
This information is useful for further research.
Learn about qualitative data: uncover its types and examples here.
Examples of Empirical Research
- An empirical research study can be carried out to determine if listening to happy music improves the mood of individuals. The researcher may need to conduct an experiment that involves exposing individuals to happy music to see if this improves their moods.
The findings from such an experiment will provide empirical evidence that confirms or refutes the hypotheses.
- An empirical research study can also be carried out to determine the effects of a new drug on specific groups of people. The researcher may expose the research subjects to controlled quantities of the drug and observe research subjects to controlled quantities of the drug and observe the effects over a specific period of time to gather empirical data.
- Another example of empirical research is measuring the levels of noise pollution found in an urban area to determine the average levels of sound exposure experienced by its inhabitants. Here, the researcher may have to administer questionnaires or carry out a survey in order to gather relevant data based on the experiences of the research subjects.
- Empirical research can also be carried out to determine the relationship between seasonal migration and the body mass of flying birds. A researcher may need to observe the birds and carry out necessary observation and experimentation in order to arrive at objective outcomes that answer the research question.
Empirical Research Data Collection Methods
Empirical data can be gathered using qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. Quantitative data collection methods are used for numerical data gathering while qualitative data collection processes are used to gather empirical data that cannot be quantified, that is, non-numerical data.
The following are common methods of gathering data in empirical research
- Survey/ Questionnaire
A survey is a method of data gathering that is typically employed by researchers to gather large sets of data from a specific number of respondents with regards to a research subject. This method of data gathering is often used for quantitative data collection , although it can also be deployed during quantitative research.
A survey contains a set of questions that can range from close-ended to open-ended questions together with other question types that revolve around the research subject. A survey can be administered physically or with the use of online data-gathering platforms like Formplus.
Empirical data can also be collected by carrying out an experiment. An experiment is a controlled simulation in which one or more of the research variables is manipulated using a set of interconnected processes in order to confirm or refute the research hypotheses.
An experiment is a useful method of measuring causality; that is cause and effect between dependent and independent variables in a research environment. It is an integral data gathering method in an empirical research study because it involves testing calculated assumptions in order to arrive at the most valid data and research outcomes.
T he case study method is another common data gathering method in an empirical research study. It involves sifting through and analyzing relevant cases and real-life experiences about the research subject or research variables in order to discover in-depth information that can serve as empirical data.
- Observation
The observational method is a method of qualitative data gathering that requires the researcher to study the behaviors of research variables in their natural environments in order to gather relevant information that can serve as empirical data.
How to collect Empirical Research Data with Questionnaire
With Formplus, you can create a survey or questionnaire for collecting empirical data from your research subjects. Formplus also offers multiple form sharing options so that you can share your empirical research survey to research subjects via a variety of methods.
Here is a step-by-step guide of how to collect empirical data using Formplus:
Sign in to Formplus
In the Formplus builder, you can easily create your empirical research survey by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus.
Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on “Create Form ” to begin.
Unlock the secrets of Quantitative Data: Click here to explore the types and examples.
Edit Form Title
Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Empirical Research Survey”.
Edit Form
- Click on the edit button to edit the form.
- Add Fields: Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for survey forms in the Formplus builder.
- Edit fields
- Click on “Save”
- Preview form.
Customize Form
Formplus allows you to add unique features to your empirical research survey form. You can personalize your survey using various customization options. Here, you can add background images, your organization’s logo, and use other styling options. You can also change the display theme of your form.
- Share your Form Link with Respondents
Formplus offers multiple form sharing options which enables you to easily share your empirical research survey form with respondents. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages.
You can send out your survey form as email invitations to your research subjects too. If you wish, you can share your form’s QR code or embed it on your organization’s website for easy access.
Empirical vs Non-Empirical Research
Empirical and non-empirical research are common methods of systematic investigation employed by researchers. Unlike empirical research that tests hypotheses in order to arrive at valid research outcomes, non-empirical research theorizes the logical assumptions of research variables.
Definition: Empirical research is a research approach that makes use of evidence-based data while non-empirical research is a research approach that makes use of theoretical data.
Method: In empirical research, the researcher arrives at valid outcomes by mainly observing research variables, creating a hypothesis and experimenting on research variables to confirm or refute the hypothesis. In non-empirical research, the researcher relies on inductive and deductive reasoning to theorize logical assumptions about the research subjects.
The major difference between the research methodology of empirical and non-empirical research is while the assumptions are tested in empirical research, they are entirely theorized in non-empirical research.
Data Sample: Empirical research makes use of empirical data while non-empirical research does not make use of empirical data. Empirical data refers to information that is gathered through experience or observation.
Unlike empirical research, theoretical or non-empirical research does not rely on data gathered through evidence. Rather, it works with logical assumptions and beliefs about the research subject.
Data Collection Methods : Empirical research makes use of quantitative and qualitative data gathering methods which may include surveys, experiments, and methods of observation. This helps the researcher to gather empirical data, that is, data backed by evidence.
Non-empirical research, on the other hand, does not make use of qualitative or quantitative methods of data collection . Instead, the researcher gathers relevant data through critical studies, systematic review and meta-analysis.
Advantages of Empirical Research
- Empirical research is flexible. In this type of systematic investigation, the researcher can adjust the research methodology including the data sample size, data gathering methods plus the data analysis methods as necessitated by the research process.
- It helps the research to understand how the research outcomes can be influenced by different research environments.
- Empirical research study helps the researcher to develop relevant analytical and observation skills that can be useful in dynamic research contexts.
- This type of research approach allows the researcher to control multiple research variables in order to arrive at the most relevant research outcomes.
- Empirical research is widely considered as one of the most authentic and competent research designs.
- It improves the internal validity of traditional research using a variety of experiments and research observation methods.
Disadvantages of Empirical Research
- An empirical research study is time-consuming because the researcher needs to gather the empirical data from multiple resources which typically takes a lot of time.
- It is not a cost-effective research approach. Usually, this method of research incurs a lot of cost because of the monetary demands of the field research.
- It may be difficult to gather the needed empirical data sample because of the multiple data gathering methods employed in an empirical research study.
- It may be difficult to gain access to some communities and firms during the data gathering process and this can affect the validity of the research.
- The report from an empirical research study is intensive and can be very lengthy in nature.
Conclusion
Empirical research is an important method of systematic investigation because it gives the researcher the opportunity to test the validity of different assumptions, in the form of hypotheses, before arriving at any findings. Hence, it is a more research approach.
There are different quantitative and qualitative methods of data gathering employed during an empirical research study based on the purpose of the research which include surveys, experiments, and various observatory methods. Surveys are one of the most common methods or empirical data collection and they can be administered online or physically.
You can use Formplus to create and administer your online empirical research survey. Formplus allows you to create survey forms that you can share with target respondents in order to obtain valuable feedback about your research context, question or subject.
In the form builder, you can add different fields to your survey form and you can also modify these form fields to suit your research process. Sign up to Formplus to access the form builder and start creating powerful online empirical research survey forms.
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Defining Empirical Research— Types, Methods, and Examples
- Author Survey Point Team
- Published January 10, 2023
Empirical research is a research methodology that uses experiences and verifiable evidence to reach conclusions. Derived from the Greek word ‘ empeirikos ,’ which means experience, empirical research is based on believing only what can be seen, experienced, or verified. This makes empirical research stand out as scientific and trustworthy.
Empirical research can be qualitative or quantitative in nature to answer a variety of questions confidently. For example, one can use snowball sampling to gather contact details of homeless people in a city and then observe how they survive or behave over a period of time to form conclusions on the basis of those observations.
The observations and experiences upon which empirical research is based allow for the subject and the study conclusions to be independently validated. The results of empirical studies are helpful for testing theories and dispelling misconceptions.
Table of Contents
Types of Empirical Research
There are broadly two types of Empirical Research – Quantitative and Qualitative . In a generic sense, both these empirical research methodologies refer to a collective pool of data using calibrated scientific instruments. Let’s talk about these two below:
1. Quantitative Empirical Research
Information is gathered through numerical data in quantitative empirical research. Opinions, preferences, behaviors, tendencies, and other variables are quantified to collect information in the form of numbers. These numbers are further studied to reach conclusions.
For instance, you can gauge customer satisfaction by asking for ratings from 1 to 10, with 1 representing the least satisfied and 10 representing the most satisfied.
Numbers can be collected to summarize people’s preferences and allow them to be quantified.
2. Qualitative Empirical Research
For businesses to reach nuanced conclusions, more than just numerical data is needed to formulate informed opinions. To get in-depth information, the data collected has to be descriptive. Descriptive data helps the researcher do qualitative research on a subject and form hypotheses and theories accordingly. In qualitative empirical research, this process is called qualitative analysis.
Generally, these studies use a smaller sample size and are a little unorganized. There is a growing trend for qualitative research in focus groups, interviews, and experiments.
Research Methods Using Empirical Evidence
Data gathered through research needs to be analyzed. By analyzing empirical data with certain methods, questions that cannot be answered in a laboratory can be answered with conclusions that lab experiments cannot reach.
Quantitative Research Methods
We will take up and discuss the sub categories of quantitative method one by one:
1. Survey research
It uses surveys to gather numerical data for research. One of the most common survey research methods is sending a closed set of questions via email or other media to customers. These questions are easy as per their difficulty level and are efficient enough to yield higher responses.
2. Experimental research
Experimental research is done by gathering numerical data by conducting an experiment. An experiment to determine someone’s tendency to choose a specific response in a particular situation can help us better understand human behavior and choices.
3. Correlational research
Correlational research is done to find the correlation between attributes such as IQ levels and success. By establishing a correlation between one attribute and another, it can be used to predict outcomes.
Moreover, it can be quantified, so the degree of correlation can be determined.
4. Longitudinal study
The longitudinal study is done by observing and repeatedly testing a subject over a long time. It aims to understand the long-term impact of various activities or choices on the subject.
5. Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional research studies a set of people with similarities in all variables, excluding the studied one. It helps the researcher establish a cause-and-effect relationship by using data from continuous observation of the subjects. Often followed by longitudinal research.
6. Casual comparison
By comparing two or more variables, casual comparison determines whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between them.
Qualitative Research Methods
1. case study.
Case studies involve investigating and analyzing real-world examples, such as companies or other entities. It is put to use when an actual issue needs to be researched. It has extensive application in the commercial investigation.
Studying the experiences of other businesses and organizations that have dealt with similar issues in the past might shed light on the issues at hand for any given organization or group. Business schools also use case studies to make learning more interactive and fun for students.
2. Observational method
The observational method involves observing the subject and gathering qualitative data. A subject is observed for a considerable period of time, and qualitative observations are then studied to form conclusions.
Gathered data can also be quantitative, depending on the research topic. But since this type of research takes a long time, it is primarily qualitative data collected by observing subjects.
3. One-on-one interview
As the name suggests, one-on-one interviews involve making qualitative observations about the subject by directly interviewing them. It is conversational and helps get in-depth data about the subject’s personality, views, etc., which cannot be analyzed or estimated otherwise.
4. Focus groups
Focus groups are small groups of people contributing to open discussions on a particular topic. This method is used by product companies who want to know how well their products may perform in the market.
5. Text analysis
Almost any form of social media content, including textual and visual, can be analyzed to arrive at conclusions. This method is relatively new, but the qualitative research done using text analysis is very useful and has a far-reaching impact.
Examples of Empirical Research
- Scientists looked at the long-term effects of video games on children by dividing a sample of kids into two groups, one of which played video games while the other did not. They then compared the two sets of kids’ development in various ways, including their eyesight, behavior, outlook, and personalities.
- Consumers’ willingness to purchase a product at a given moment can be measured by having them rate their interest in doing so on a Likert scale from 1 to 10.
- Wild animal populations were studied to understand seasonal habitat use patterns, activity, and reproduction patterns. You can do this through long-term observation or by studying previously collected data on animal behavior in a certain location.
- The research analyzed people’s motivations based on their online presence and published content. Using the frequency of words used by the person on a particular platform throughout their online presence can provide this information.
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Sometimes you may be asked to find and use empirical research. If you aren't sure what is and is not empirical research, this might seem scary. We are here to help.
Note: while this guide is designed to help you understand and find empirical research, you should always default to your instructor's definition if they provide one and direct any specific questions about whether a source fits that definition to your instructor.
Guide Overview
In this guide, you will learn:
- The definition and characteristics of empirical research.
- How to identify the characteristics of empirical research quickly when reading an article.
- Ways to search more quickly for empirical research.
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- Introductory Video This video covers what empirical research is, what kinds of questions and methods empirical researchers use, and some tips for finding empirical research articles in your discipline.
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Empirical Research: What is empirical research?
What is empirical research.
- How do I find empirical research in databases?
- What does empirical research look like?
- How is empirical research conducted?
- What is Empirical Research?
- How do I Find Empirical Research in Databases?
- How is Empirical Research Conducted?
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Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.
How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the subheadings within the article, book, or report and look for a description of the research "methodology." Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?
Key characteristics to look for:
- Specific research questions to be answered
- Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied
- Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)
Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:
- Introduction : sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
- Methodology: sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools
- Results : sometimes called "findings" -- what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
- Discussion : sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies
What about when research is not empirical?
Many humanities scholars do not use empirical methods. if you are looking for empirical articles in one of these subject areas, try including keywords like:.
- quantitative
- qualitative
Also, look for opportunities to narrow your search to scholarly, academic, or peer-reviewed journals articles in the database.
Adapted from " Research Methods: Finding Empirical Articles " by Jill Anderson at Georgia State University Library.
See the complete A-Z databases list for more resources
The primary content of this guide was originally created by Ellysa Cahoy at Penn State Libraries .
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Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.
How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the subheadings within the article, book, or report and look for a description of the research "methodology." Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?
Key characteristics to look for:
- Specific research questions to be answered
- Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied
- Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)
Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:
- Introduction : sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
- Methodology: sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools
- Results : sometimes called "findings" -- what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
- Discussion : sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies
Adapted from PennState University Libraries, Empirical Research in the Social Sciences and Education
Empirical research is published in books and in scholarly, peer-reviewed journals. Keep in mind that most library databases do not offer straightforward ways to identifying empirical research.
Finding Empirical Research in PsycINFO
- PsycInfo Use the "Advanced Search" Type your keywords into the search boxes Scroll down the page to "Methodology," and choose "Empirical Study" Choose other limits, such as publication date, if needed Click on the "Search" button
Finding Empirical Research in PubMed
- PubMED One technique is to limit your search results after you perform a search: Type in your keywords and click on the "Search" button To the left of your results, under "Article Types," check off the types of studies that interest you Another alternative is to construct a more sophisticated search: From PubMed's main screen, click on "Advanced" link underneath the search box On the Advanced Search Builder screen type your keywords into the search boxes Change one of the empty boxes from "All Fields" to "Publication Type" To the right of Publication Type, click on "Show Index List" and choose a methodology that interests you. You can choose more than one by holding down the "Ctrl" or "⌘" on your keyboard as you click on each methodology Click on the "Search" button
Finding Empirical Research in Library OneSearch & Google Scholar
These tools do not have a method for locating empirical research. Using "empirical" as a keyword will find some studies, but miss many others. Consider using one of the more specialized databases above.
- Library OneSearch
- Google Scholar
This refers to the process where authors who are doing research submit a paper they have written to a journal. The journal editor then sends the article to the author's peers (researchers and scholars) who are in the same discipline for review. The reviewers determine if the article should be published based on the quality of the research, including the validity of the data, the conclusions the authors' draw and the originality of the research. This process is important because it validates the research and gives it a sort of "seal of approval" from others in the research community.
Identifying a Journal is Peer-Reviewed
One of the best places to find out if a journal is peer-reviewed is to go to the journal website.
Most publishers have a website for a journal that tells you about the journal, how authors can submit an article, and what the process is for getting published.
If you find the journal website, look for the link that says information for authors, instructions for authors, submitting an article or something similar.
Finding Peer-Reviewed Articles
Start in a library database. Look for a peer-review or scholarly filter.
- PsycInfo Most comprehensive database of psychology. Filters allow you to limit by methodology. Articles without full-text can be requested via Interlibrary loan.
- Library OneSearch Search almost all the library resources. Look for a peer-review filter on the left.
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Qualitative and Quantitative Research
What is "empirical research".
- empirical research
- Locating Articles in Cinahl and PsycInfo
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- Getting the Articles This link opens in a new window
Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.
How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the subheadings within the article, book, or report and look for a description of the research "methodology." Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?
Key characteristics to look for:
- Specific research questions to be answered
- Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied
- Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)
Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:
- Introduction : sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
- Methodology: sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools
- Results : sometimes called "findings" -- what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
- Discussion : sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies
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Empirical Research: A Comprehensive Guide for Academics
Empirical research relies on gathering and studying real, observable data. The term ’empirical’ comes from the Greek word ’empeirikos,’ meaning ‘experienced’ or ‘based on experience.’ So, what is empirical research? Instead of using theories or opinions, empirical research depends on real data obtained through direct observation or experimentation.
Why Empirical Research?
Empirical research plays a key role in checking or improving current theories, providing a systematic way to grow knowledge across different areas. By focusing on objectivity, it makes research findings more trustworthy, which is critical in research fields like medicine, psychology, economics, and public policy. In the end, the strengths of empirical research lie in deepening our awareness of the world and improving our capacity to tackle problems wisely. 1,2
Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
There are two main types of empirical research methods – qualitative and quantitative. 3,4 Qualitative research delves into intricate phenomena using non-numerical data, such as interviews or observations, to offer in-depth insights into human experiences. In contrast, quantitative research analyzes numerical data to spot patterns and relationships, aiming for objectivity and the ability to apply findings to a wider context.
Steps for Conducting Empirical Research
When it comes to conducting research, there are some simple steps that researchers can follow. 5,6
- Create Research Hypothesis: Clearly state the specific question you want to answer or the hypothesis you want to explore in your study.
- Examine Existing Research: Read and study existing research on your topic. Understand what’s already known, identify existing gaps in knowledge, and create a framework for your own study based on what you learn.
- Plan Your Study: Decide how you’ll conduct your research—whether through qualitative methods, quantitative methods, or a mix of both. Choose suitable techniques like surveys, experiments, interviews, or observations based on your research question.
- Develop Research Instruments: Create reliable research collection tools, such as surveys or questionnaires, to help you collate data. Ensure these tools are well-designed and effective.
- Collect Data: Systematically gather the information you need for your research according to your study design and protocols using the chosen research methods.
- Data Analysis: Analyze the collected data using suitable statistical or qualitative methods that align with your research question and objectives.
- Interpret Results: Understand and explain the significance of your analysis results in the context of your research question or hypothesis.
- Draw Conclusions: Summarize your findings and draw conclusions based on the evidence. Acknowledge any study limitations and propose areas for future research.
Advantages of Empirical Research
Empirical research is valuable because it stays objective by relying on observable data, lessening the impact of personal biases. This objectivity boosts the trustworthiness of research findings. Also, using precise quantitative methods helps in accurate measurement and statistical analysis. This precision ensures researchers can draw reliable conclusions from numerical data, strengthening our understanding of the studied phenomena. 4
Disadvantages of Empirical Research
While empirical research has notable strengths, researchers must also be aware of its limitations when deciding on the right research method for their study.4 One significant drawback of empirical research is the risk of oversimplifying complex phenomena, especially when relying solely on quantitative methods. These methods may struggle to capture the richness and nuances present in certain social, cultural, or psychological contexts. Another challenge is the potential for confounding variables or biases during data collection, impacting result accuracy.
Tips for Empirical Writing
In empirical research, the writing is usually done in research papers, articles, or reports. The empirical writing follows a set structure, and each section has a specific role. Here are some tips for your empirical writing. 7
- Define Your Objectives: When you write about your research, start by making your goals clear. Explain what you want to find out or prove in a simple and direct way. This helps guide your research and lets others know what you have set out to achieve.
- Be Specific in Your Literature Review: In the part where you talk about what others have studied before you, focus on research that directly relates to your research question. Keep it short and pick studies that help explain why your research is important. This part sets the stage for your work.
- Explain Your Methods Clearly : When you talk about how you did your research (Methods), explain it in detail. Be clear about your research plan, who took part, and what you did; this helps others understand and trust your study. Also, be honest about any rules you follow to make sure your study is ethical and reproducible.
- Share Your Results Clearly : After doing your empirical research, share what you found in a simple way. Use tables or graphs to make it easier for your audience to understand your research. Also, talk about any numbers you found and clearly state if they are important or not. Ensure that others can see why your research findings matter.
- Talk About What Your Findings Mean: In the part where you discuss your research results, explain what they mean. Discuss why your findings are important and if they connect to what others have found before. Be honest about any problems with your study and suggest ideas for more research in the future.
- Wrap It Up Clearly: Finally, end your empirical research paper by summarizing what you found and why it’s important. Remind everyone why your study matters. Keep your writing clear and fix any mistakes before you share it. Ask someone you trust to read it and give you feedback before you finish.
References:
- Empirical Research in the Social Sciences and Education, Penn State University Libraries. Available online at https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/emp
- How to conduct empirical research, Emerald Publishing. Available online at https://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/how-to/research-methods/conduct-empirical-research
- Empirical Research: Quantitative & Qualitative, Arrendale Library, Piedmont University. Available online at https://library.piedmont.edu/empirical-research
- Bouchrika, I. What Is Empirical Research? Definition, Types & Samples in 2024. Research.com, January 2024. Available online at https://research.com/research/what-is-empirical-research
- Quantitative and Empirical Research vs. Other Types of Research. California State University, April 2023. Available online at https://libguides.csusb.edu/quantitative
- Empirical Research, Definitions, Methods, Types and Examples, Studocu.com website. Available online at https://www.studocu.com/row/document/uganda-christian-university/it-research-methods/emperical-research-definitions-methods-types-and-examples/55333816
- Writing an Empirical Paper in APA Style. Psychology Writing Center, University of Washington. Available online at https://psych.uw.edu/storage/writing_center/APApaper.pdf
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Related Reads:
- How to Write a Scientific Paper in 10 Steps
- What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)
- What is an Argumentative Essay? How to Write It (With Examples)
- Ethical Research Practices For Research with Human Subjects
Ethics in Science: Importance, Principles & Guidelines
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empirical evidence
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- National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Expert opinion vs. empirical evidence
- LiveScience - Empirical evidence: A definition
- Academia - Empirical Evidence
empirical evidence , information gathered directly or indirectly through observation or experimentation that may be used to confirm or disconfirm a scientific theory or to help justify, or establish as reasonable, a person’s belief in a given proposition. A belief may be said to be justified if there is sufficient evidence to make holding the belief reasonable.
The concept of evidence is the basis of philosophical evidentialism, an epistemological thesis according to which a person is justified in believing a given proposition p if and only if the person’s evidence for p is proper or sufficient. In this context , the Scottish Enlightenment philosopher David Hume (1711–76) famously asserted that the “wise man…proportions his belief to the evidence.” In a similar vein, the American astronomer Carl Sagan popularized the statement, “Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.”
Foundationalists , however, defend the view that certain basic, or foundational, beliefs are either inherently justified or justified by something other than another belief (e.g., a sensation or perception) and that all other beliefs may be justified only if they are directly or indirectly supported by at least one foundational belief (that is, only if they are either supported by at least one foundational belief or supported by other beliefs that are themselves supported by at least one foundational belief). The most influential foundationalist of the modern period was the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes (1596–1650), who attempted to establish a foundation for justified beliefs regarding an external world in his intuition that, for as long as he is thinking, he exists (“I think, therefore I am”; see cogito, ergo sum ). A traditional argument in favour of foundationalism asserts that no other account of inferential justification—the act of justifying a given belief by inferring it from another belief that itself is justified—is possible. Thus, assume that one belief, Belief 1, is justified by another belief, Belief 2. How is Belief 2 justified? It cannot be justified by Belief 1, because the inference from Belief 2 to Belief 1 would then be circular and invalid. It cannot be justified by a third nonfoundational Belief 3, because the same question would then apply to that belief, leading to an infinite regress. And one cannot simply assume that Belief 2 is not justified, for then Belief 1 would not be justified through the inference from Belief 2. Accordingly, there must be some beliefs whose justification does not depend on other beliefs, and those justified beliefs must function as a foundation for the inferential justification of other beliefs.
Empirical evidence can be quantitative or qualitative. Typically, numerical quantitative evidence can be represented visually by means of diagrams, graphs, or charts, reflecting the use of statistical or mathematical data and the researcher’s neutral noninteractive role. It can be obtained by methods such as experiments, surveys, correlational research (to study the relationship between variables), cross-sectional research (to compare different groups), causal-comparative research (to explore cause-effect relationships), and longitudinal studies (to test a subject during a given time period).
Qualitative evidence, on the other hand, can foster a deeper understanding of behaviour and related factors and is not typically expressed by using numbers. Often subjective and resulting from interaction between the researcher and participants, it can stem from the use of methods such as interviews (based on verbal interaction), observation (informing ethnographic research design), textual analysis (involving the description and interpretation of texts), focus groups (planned group discussions), and case studies (in-depth analyses of individuals or groups).
Empirical evidence is subject to assessments of its validity. Validity can be internal, involving the soundness of an experiment’s design and execution and the accuracy of subsequent data analysis , or external, involving generalizability to other research contexts ( see ecological validity ).
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Introduction: What is Empirical Research?
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Empirical research is based on phenomena that can be observed and measured. Empirical research derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.
Key characteristics of empirical research include:
- Specific research questions to be answered;
- Definitions of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied;
- Description of the methodology or research design used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys);
- Two basic research processes or methods in empirical research: quantitative methods and qualitative methods (see the rest of the guide for more about these methods).
(based on the original from the Connelly LIbrary of LaSalle University)
Empirical Research: Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Learn about common types of journal articles that use APA Style, including empirical studies; meta-analyses; literature reviews; and replication, theoretical, and methodological articles.
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Quantitative Research
A quantitative research project is characterized by having a population about which the researcher wants to draw conclusions, but it is not possible to collect data on the entire population.
- For an observational study, it is necessary to select a proper, statistical random sample and to use methods of statistical inference to draw conclusions about the population.
- For an experimental study, it is necessary to have a random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups in order to use methods of statistical inference.
Statistical methods are used in all three stages of a quantitative research project.
For observational studies, the data are collected using statistical sampling theory. Then, the sample data are analyzed using descriptive statistical analysis. Finally, generalizations are made from the sample data to the entire population using statistical inference.
For experimental studies, the subjects are allocated to experimental and control group using randomizing methods. Then, the experimental data are analyzed using descriptive statistical analysis. Finally, just as for observational data, generalizations are made to a larger population.
Iversen, G. (2004). Quantitative research . In M. Lewis-Beck, A. Bryman, & T. Liao (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social science research methods . (pp. 897-898). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Qualitative Research
What makes a work deserving of the label qualitative research is the demonstrable effort to produce richly and relevantly detailed descriptions and particularized interpretations of people and the social, linguistic, material, and other practices and events that shape and are shaped by them.
Qualitative research typically includes, but is not limited to, discerning the perspectives of these people, or what is often referred to as the actor’s point of view. Although both philosophically and methodologically a highly diverse entity, qualitative research is marked by certain defining imperatives that include its case (as opposed to its variable) orientation, sensitivity to cultural and historical context, and reflexivity.
In its many guises, qualitative research is a form of empirical inquiry that typically entails some form of purposive sampling for information-rich cases; in-depth interviews and open-ended interviews, lengthy participant/field observations, and/or document or artifact study; and techniques for analysis and interpretation of data that move beyond the data generated and their surface appearances.
Sandelowski, M. (2004). Qualitative research . In M. Lewis-Beck, A. Bryman, & T. Liao (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social science research methods . (pp. 893-894). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
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Identifying Empirical Research Articles
Identifying empirical articles.
- Searching for Empirical Research Articles
What is Empirical Research?
An empirical research article reports the results of a study that uses data derived from actual observation or experimentation. Empirical research articles are examples of primary research. To learn more about the differences between primary and secondary research, see our related guide:
- Primary and Secondary Sources
By the end of this guide, you will be able to:
- Identify common elements of an empirical article
- Use a variety of search strategies to search for empirical articles within the library collection
Look for the IMRaD layout in the article to help identify empirical research. Sometimes the sections will be labeled differently, but the content will be similar.
- I ntroduction: why the article was written, research question or questions, hypothesis, literature review
- M ethods: the overall research design and implementation, description of sample, instruments used, how the authors measured their experiment
- R esults: output of the author's measurements, usually includes statistics of the author's findings
- D iscussion: the author's interpretation and conclusions about the results, limitations of study, suggestions for further research
Parts of an Empirical Research Article
Parts of an empirical article.
The screenshots below identify the basic IMRaD structure of an empirical research article.
Introduction
The introduction contains a literature review and the study's research hypothesis.
The method section outlines the research design, participants, and measures used.
Results
The results section contains statistical data (charts, graphs, tables, etc.) and research participant quotes.
The discussion section includes impacts, limitations, future considerations, and research.
Learn the IMRaD Layout: How to Identify an Empirical Article
This short video overviews the IMRaD method for identifying empirical research.
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- Last Updated: Nov 16, 2023 8:24 AM
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How to... Conduct empirical research
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Empirical research is research that is based on observation and measurement of phenomena, as directly experienced by the researcher. The data thus gathered may be compared against a theory or hypothesis, but the results are still based on real life experience. The data gathered is all primary data, although secondary data from a literature review may form the theoretical background.
On this page
What is empirical research, the research question, the theoretical framework, sampling techniques, design of the research.
- Methods of empirical research
- Techniques of data collection & analysis
- Reporting the findings of empirical research
- Further information
Typically, empirical research embodies the following elements:
- A research question , which will determine research objectives.
- A particular and planned design for the research, which will depend on the question and which will find ways of answering it with appropriate use of resources.
- The gathering of primary data , which is then analysed.
- A particular methodology for collecting and analysing the data, such as an experiment or survey.
- The limitation of the data to a particular group, area or time scale, known as a sample: for example, a specific number of employees of a particular company type, or all users of a library over a given time scale. The sample should be somehow representative of a wider population.
- The ability to recreate the study and test the results. This is known as reliability .
- The ability to generalise from the findings to a larger sample and to other situations.
The starting point for your research should be your research question. This should be a formulation of the issue which is at the heart of the area which you are researching, which has the right degree of breadth and depth to make the research feasible within your resources. The following points are useful to remember when coming up with your research question, or RQ:
- your doctoral thesis;
- reading the relevant literature in journals, especially literature reviews which are good at giving an overview, and spotting interesting conceptual developments;
- looking at research priorities of funding bodies, professional institutes etc.;
- going to conferences;
- looking out for calls for papers;
- developing a dialogue with other researchers in your area.
- To narrow down your research topic, brainstorm ideas around it, possibly with your colleagues if you have decided to collaborate, noting all the questions down.
- Come up with a "general focus" question; then develop some other more specific ones.
- they are not too broad;
- they are not so narrow as to yield uninteresting results;
- will the research entailed be covered by your resources, i.e. will you have sufficient time and money;
- there is sufficient background literature on the topic;
- you can carry out appropriate field research;
- you have stated your question in the simplest possible way.
Let's look at some examples:
Bisking et al. examine whether or not gender has an influence on disciplinary action in their article Does the sex of the leader and subordinate influence a leader's disciplinary decisions? ( Management Decision , Volume 41 Number 10) and come up with the following series of inter-related questions:
- Given the same infraction, would a male leader impose the same disciplinary action on male and female subordinates?
- Given the same infraction, would a female leader impose the same disciplinary action on male and female subordinates?
- Given the same infraction, would a female leader impose the same disciplinary action on female subordinates as a male leader would on male subordinates?
- Given the same infraction, would a female leader impose the same disciplinary action on male subordinates as a male leader would on female subordinates?
- Given the same infraction, would a male and female leader impose the same disciplinary action on male subordinates?
- Given the same infraction, would a male and female leader impose the same disciplinary action on female subordinates?
- Do female and male leaders impose the same discipline on subordinates regardless of the type of infraction?
- Is it possible to predict how female and male leaders will impose disciplinary actions based on their respective BSRI femininity and masculinity scores?
Motion et al. examined co-branding in Equity in Corporate Co-branding ( European Journal of Marketing , Volume 37 Number 7/8) and came up with the following RQs:
RQ1: What objectives underpinned the corporate brand?
RQ2: How were brand values deployed to establish the corporate co-brand within particular discourse contexts?
RQ3: How was the desired rearticulation promoted to shareholders?
RQ4: What are the sources of corporate co-brand equity?
Note, the above two examples state the RQs very explicitly; sometimes the RQ is implicit:
Qun G. Jiao, Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie are library researchers who examined the question: "What is the relationship between library anxiety and social interdependence?" in a number of articles, see Dimensions of library anxiety and social interdependence: implications for library services ( Library Review , Volume 51 Number 2).
Or sometimes the RQ is stated as a general objective:
Ying Fan describes outsourcing in British companies in Strategic outsourcing: evidence from British companies ( Marketing Intelligence & Planning , Volume 18 Number 4) and states his research question as an objective:
The main objective of the research was to explore the two key areas in the outsourcing process, namely:
- pre-outsourcing decision process; and
- post-outsourcing supplier management.
or as a proposition:
Karin Klenke explores issues of gender in management decisions in Gender influences in decision-making processes in top management teams ( Management Decision , Volume 41 Number 10).
Given the exploratory nature of this research, no specific hypotheses were formulated. Instead, the following general propositions are postulated:
P1. Female and male members of TMTs exercise different types of power in the strategic decision making process.
P2. Female and male members of TMTs differ in the extent in which they employ political savvy in the strategic decision making process.
P3. Male and female members of TMTs manage conflict in strategic decision making situations differently.
P4. Female and male members of TMTs utilise different types of trust in the decision making process.
Sometimes, the theoretical underpinning (see next section) of the research leads you to formulate a hypothesis rather than a question:
Martin et al. explored the effect of fast-forwarding of ads (called zipping) in Remote control marketing: how ad fast-forwarding and ad repetition affect consumers ( Marketing Intelligence & Planning , Volume 20 Number 1) and his research explores the following hypotheses:
The influence of zipping H1. Individuals viewing advertisements played at normal speed will exhibit higher ad recall and recognition than those who view zipped advertisements.
Ad repetition effects H2. Individuals viewing a repeated advertisement will exhibit higher ad recall and recognition than those who see an advertisement once.
Zipping and ad repetition H3. Individuals viewing zipped, repeated advertisements will exhibit higher ad recall and recognition than those who see a normal speed advertisement that is played once.
Empirical research is not divorced from theoretical considerations; and a consideration of theory should form one of the starting points of your research. This applies particularly in the case of management research which by its very nature is practical and applied to the real world. The link between research and theory is symbiotic: theory should inform research, and the findings of research should inform theory.
There are a number of different theoretical perspectives; if you are unfamiliar with them, we suggest that you look at any good research methods textbook for a full account (see Further information), but this page will contain notes on the following:
This is the approach of the natural sciences, emphasising total objectivity and independence on the part of the researcher, a highly scientific methodology, with data being collected in a value-free manner and using quantitative techniques with some statistical measures of analysis. Assumes that there are 'independent facts' in the social world as in the natural world. The object is to generalise from what has been observed and hence add to the body of theory.
Very similar to positivism in that it has a strong reliance on objectivity and quantitative methods of data collection, but with less of a reliance on theory. There is emphasis on data and facts in their own right; they do not need to be linked to theory.
Interpretivism
This view criticises positivism as being inappropriate for the social world of business and management which is dominated by people rather than the laws of nature and hence has an inevitable subjective element as people will have different interpretations of situations and events. The business world can only be understood through people's interpretation. This view is more likely to emphasise qualitative methods such as participant observation, focus groups and semi-structured interviewing.
typically use | typically use |
are | are |
involve the researcher as ideally an | require more and on the part of the researcher. |
may focus on cause and effect. | focuses on understanding of phenomena in their social, institutional, political and economic context. |
require a hypothesis. | require a |
have the that they may force people into categories, also it cannot go into much depth about subjects and issues. | have the that they focus on a few individuals, and may therefore be difficult to generalise. |
While reality exists independently of human experience, people are not like objects in the natural world but are subject to social influences and processes. Like empiricism and positivism , this emphasises the importance of explanation, but is also concerned with the social world and with its underlying structures.
Inductive and deductive approaches
At what point in your research you bring in a theoretical perspective will depend on whether you choose an:
- Inductive approach – collect the data, then develop the theory.
- Deductive approach – assume a theoretical position then test it against the data.
is more usually linked with an approach. | is more usually linked with the approach. |
is more likely to use qualitative methods, such as interviewing, observation etc., with a more flexible structure. | is more likely to use quantitative methods, such as experiments, questionnaires etc., and a highly structured methodology with controls. |
does not simply look at cause and effect, but at people's perceptions of events, and at the context of the research. | is the more scientific method, concerned with cause and effect, and the relationship between variables. |
builds theory after collection of the data. | starts from a theoretical perspective, and develops a hypothesis which is tested against the data. |
is more likely to use an in-depth study of a smaller sample. | is more likely to use a larger sample. |
is less likely to be concerned with generalisation (a danger is that no patterns emerge). | is concerned with generalisation. |
tresses the researcher involvement. | stresses the independence of the researcher. |
It should be emphasised that none of the above approaches are mutually exclusive and can be used in combination.
Sampling may be done either:
- On a random basis – a given number is selected completely at random.
- On a systematic basis – every n th element of the population is selected.
- On a stratified random basis – the population is divided into segments, for example, in a University, you could divide the population into academic, administrators, and academic related. A random number of each group is then selected.
- On a cluster basis – a particular subgroup is chosen at random.
- Convenience – being present at a particular time e.g. at lunch in the canteen.
- Purposive – people can be selected deliberately because their views are relevant to the issue concerned.
- Quota – the assumption is made that there are subgroups in the population, and a quota of respondents is chosen to reflect this diversity.
Useful articles
Richard Laughlin in Empirical research in accounting: alternative approaches and a case for "middle-range" thinking provides an interesting general overview of the different perspectives on theory and methodology as applied to accounting. ( Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, Volume 8 Number 1).
D. Tranfield and K. Starkey in The Nature, Social Organization and Promotion of Management Research: Towards Policy look at the relationship between theory and practice in management research, and develop a number of analytical frameworks, including looking at Becher's conceptual schema for disciplines and Gibbons et al.'s taxonomy of knowledge production systems. ( British Journal of Management , vol. 9, no. 4 – abstract only).
Research design is about how you go about answering your question: what strategy you adopt, and what methods do you use to achieve your results. In particular you should ask yourself...
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Sociology Research Guide: Identifying & Finding Empirical Articles
- Evaluating Your Sources
- Types of Publications
- Identifying & Finding Empirical Articles
- Known Item Searching
- EndNote Web
How to Recognize Empirical Journal Articles
Definition of an empirical study: An empirical research article reports the results of a study that uses data derived from actual observation or experimentation. Empirical research articles are examples of primary research.
Parts of a standard empirical research article: (articles will not necessary use the exact terms listed below.)
- Abstract ... A paragraph length description of what the study includes.
- Introduction ...Includes a statement of the hypotheses for the research and a review of other research on the topic.
- Method ...A description of how the research was conducted, such as: ◊ Who are participants ◊ Design of the study ◊ What the participants did ◊ What measures were used
- Results ...Describes the outcomes of the measures of the study.
- Discussion...C ontains the interpretations and implications of the study.
- References...C ontains citation information on the material cited in the report. (also called bibliography or works cited)
Characteristics of an Empirical Article:
- Empirical articles will include charts, graphs, or statistical analysis.
- Empirical research articles are usually substantial, maybe from 8-30 pages long.
- There is always a bibliography found at the end of the article.
Type of publications that publish empirical studies:
- Empirical research articles are published in scholarly or academic journals These journals are also called “peer-reviewed,” or “refereed” publications.
- Examples of such publications include: ◊ American Journal of Sociology ◊ Sociological Quarterly ◊ Sociological Methods and Research
Databases that contain empirical research: (selected list only)
- Academic Search Premier add these words to your search terms: method* or research or research design or survey* or data or result*
- PsycINFO limit your searches by Form/Content Type to Empirical Study
- ERIC limit to Pub. Type to Reports - Research/Technical Change one dropdown box to Record. This finds REPORTS--RESEARCH.
- Sociological Abstracts 1963 - present.
- Sports Discus Change search limit to Level = Advanced for original scientific research
Empirical Articles - Sample Research Tips
Empirical articles detail original research/studies that have been done.
Some of the major components of empirical articles include the following: Abstract , Introduction , Method , Results , Discussion , References
Locating Empirical Articles in APA PsycINFO
Use the "Methodology" limiter to select: EMPIRICAL STUDY
Locating Empirical Articles in ERIC
Use the "Publication Type" limiter to select: Reports - Research
Locating Empirical Articles in Other Databases
Use terms such as: study , research , empirical , methods , methodology , research design , survey , data , results
Please remember to use OR between your combination of terms. For example, you may enter the following in one search box:
study OR research OR empirical
research OR methods OR data OR results
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Empirical Research
- First Online: 08 May 2024
Cite this chapter
- Claes Wohlin 7 ,
- Per Runeson 8 ,
- Martin Höst 9 ,
- Magnus C. Ohlsson 10 ,
- Björn Regnell 8 &
- Anders Wesslén 11
14 Accesses
This chapter presents a decision-making structure for determining an appropriate research design for a specific study. A selection of research approaches is introduced to help illustrate the decision-making structure. The research approaches are described briefly to provide a basic understanding of different options. Moreover, the chapter discusses how different research approaches may be used in a research project or when, for example, pursuing PhD studies.
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The term “investigation” is used as a more general term than a specific study.
It is sometimes also referred to as a review or a code review, if reviewing code. However, we have chosen to use the term “inspection” to avoid mixing it up with a systematic literature review.
Latin for “in the glass” and refers to chemical experiments in a test tube.
Latin for “in life” and refers to experiments in a real environment.
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Faculty of Technology and Society, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden
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Wohlin, C., Runeson, P., Höst, M., Ohlsson, M.C., Regnell, B., Wesslén, A. (2024). Empirical Research. In: Experimentation in Software Engineering. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-69306-3_2
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Empirical research is defined as any study whose conclusions are exclusively derived from concrete, verifiable evidence. The term empirical basically means that it is guided by scientific experimentation and/or evidence. Likewise, a study is empirical when it uses real-world evidence in investigating its assertions.
Empirical research is defined as any research where conclusions of the study is strictly drawn from concretely empirical evidence, and therefore "verifiable" evidence. This empirical evidence can be gathered using quantitative market research and qualitative market research methods. For example: A research is being conducted to find out if ...
Empirical research methodologies can be described as quantitative, qualitative, or a mix of both (usually called mixed-methods). Ruane (2016) (UofM login required) gets at the basic differences in approach between quantitative and qualitative research: Quantitative research -- an approach to documenting reality that relies heavily on numbers both for the measurement of variables and for data ...
A scientist gathering data for her research. Empirical research is research using empirical evidence.It is also a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience. Empiricism values some research more than other kinds. Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations or experiences) can be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively.
This empirical research is crucial for understanding the ecological consequences of climate change and informing conservation efforts. Business and Economics. In the business world, empirical research is essential for making data-driven decisions. Consider a market research study conducted by a business seeking to launch a new product.
Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. ... Specific research questions to be answered; Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied ... Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including ...
Empirical research is a research type where the aim of the study is based on finding concrete and provable evidence. The researcher using this method to draw conclusions can use both quantitative and qualitative methods. Different than theoretical research, empirical research uses scientific experimentation and investigation.
Definition: Empirical research is a research approach that makes use of evidence-based data while non-empirical research is a research approach that makes use of theoretical data. ... Empirical research study helps the researcher to develop relevant analytical and observation skills that can be useful in dynamic research contexts.
Hence, empirical research is a method of uncovering empirical evidence. Through the process of gathering valid empirical data, scientists from a variety of fields, ranging from the social to the natural sciences, have to carefully design their methods. This helps to ensure quality and accuracy of data collection and treatment.
Empirical research is a research methodology that uses experiences and verifiable evidence to reach conclusions. Derived from the Greek word ' empeirikos,' which means experience, empirical research is based on believing only what can be seen, experienced, or verified. This makes empirical research stand out as scientific and trustworthy.
Note: while this guide is designed to help you understand and find empirical research, ... The definition and characteristics of empirical research. How to identify the characteristics of empirical research quickly when reading an article. Ways to search more quickly for empirical research. Image Attribution. Photo by Pixabay from Pexels.
This book introduces readers to methods and strategies for research and provides them with enough knowledge to become discerning, confident consumers of research in writing. Topics covered include: library research, empirical methodology, quantitative research, experimental research, surveys, focus groups, ethnographies, and much more.
Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied. Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys) Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research ...
Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied. Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys) Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research ...
Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from ... Specific research questions to be answered; Definition of the population, ... Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments ...
Empirical research is a particular type of research that's used across various disciplines to verify new facts. Understanding the meaning of empirical research and learning how to conduct it can help you reach decisions based on an adequate investigation. In this article, we discuss the meaning of empirical research, review different ...
Disadvantages of Empirical Research. While empirical research has notable strengths, researchers must also be aware of its limitations when deciding on the right research method for their study.4 One significant drawback of empirical research is the risk of oversimplifying complex phenomena, especially when relying solely on quantitative methods.
scientific theory. belief. empirical evidence, information gathered directly or indirectly through observation or experimentation that may be used to confirm or disconfirm a scientific theory or to help justify, or establish as reasonable, a person's belief in a given proposition. A belief may be said to be justified if there is sufficient ...
Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied. Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys) Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research ...
In its many guises, qualitative research is a form of empirical inquiry that typically entails some form of purposive sampling for information-rich cases; in-depth interviews and open-ended interviews, lengthy participant/field observations, and/or document or artifact study; and techniques for analysis and interpretation of data that move ...
Identifying Empirical Research Articles. Look for the IMRaD layout in the article to help identify empirical research.Sometimes the sections will be labeled differently, but the content will be similar. Introduction: why the article was written, research question or questions, hypothesis, literature review; Methods: the overall research design and implementation, description of sample ...
Typically, empirical research embodies the following elements: A research question, which will determine research objectives. A particular and planned design for the research, which will depend on the question and which will find ways of answering it with appropriate use of resources. The gathering of primary data, which is then analysed.
Definition of an empirical study: An empirical research article reports the results of a study that uses data derived from actual observation or experimentation. Empirical research articles are examples of primary research. Parts of a standard empirical research article: (articles will not necessary use the exact terms listed below.) Abstract...
The research question is the starting point of a research study, or more specifically here an empirical research study. The research question should address a significant and relevant problem. Furthermore, the research question strongly influences the decisions made during the conduct of a research study. ... adhere to the definition of the ...