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Case Study – Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro is a city located on Brazil’s south-east coast. It is one of Brazil’s largest settlements with a population of approximately 11.7 million people. The population of Rio de Janeiro has grown for a number of reasons. Natural Increase is one reason for its growth (this is when the birth rate is higher than the death rate ). The population has also grown as the result of urbanisation . The has been caused by rural to urban migration. Millions of people have migrated from Brazil’s rural areas to Rio de Janeiro. 65% of urban growth is a result of migration. This is caused by a variety of push and pull factors.

The rapid growth of Rio de Janeiro’s population has led to a severe shortage of housing. Millions of people have been forced to construct their own homes from scrap materials such as wood, corrugated iron and metals. These areas of temporary accommodation are known as favelas in Brazil. The conditions associated with favelas are very poor. Often families have to share one tap, there is no sewerage provision, disease is common and many people are unemployed.

Favelas are located on the edge of most major Brazilian cities. They are located here for a number of reasons. Firstly, this is the only available land to build on within the city limits. Secondly, industry is located on the edge of the cities. Many people need jobs, therefore, they locate close to factories. Some of these settlements maybe 40 or 50 km from the city centre (on the edge of the city), along main roads and up very steep hillsides.

Rochina Favela, Rio de Janeiro

Rocinha is the largest favela in Brazil. It is located in the southern zone of the city. It is built on a steep hillside overlooking the city, just one kilometre from the beach . It is home to between 60,000 to 150,000 people (though this could be more).

Self-help schemes – Rocinha, Bairro Project

The authorities in Rio de Janeiro have taken a number of steps to reduce problems in favelas. They have set up self-help schemes. This is when the local authority provide local residents with the materials needs to construct permanent accommodation. This includes breeze blocks and cement. The local residents provide labour. The money saved can be spent on providing basic amenities such as electricity and water. Today, almost all the houses in Rocinha are made from concrete and brick. Some buildings are three and four stories tall and almost all houses have basic sanitation, plumbing, and electricity. Compared to simple shanty towns or slums, Rocinha has a better-developed infrastructure and hundreds of businesses such as banks, drug stores, bus lines, cable television, including locally based channel TV ROC, and, at one time, even a McDonalds franchise, though it has since closed. These factors help classify Rocinha as a Favela Bairro , or Favela Neighborhood.

Not all people living in Rio de Janeiro are poor. Many wealthy people live close to the CBD.

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Mrs Conrad's KIS I-ALEVEL Geography Support

As migration.

This topic is split into 4 sections

Migration as a component of population change
Internal migration (within a country)
International migration
A case study of international migration

Click on the link below to download a revision checklist for this topic

Migration checklist

What is migration?

Migration is defined as the movement of people across a specified boundary to establish a new permanent place of residence (lasting more than one year).

Migration can be split into many sub groups, but it can be classified simply into either internal (within a country) or international (across international boundaries).

If an international migrant moves in to a country this is called immigration
If an international migrant leaves a country this is called emigration
If an internal migrant moves into a new area within their country this is called in-migration
If an internal migrant moves out of their area within a country this is called out-migration

Why do people migrate?

People will move from one place to another for many reasons. Often they have negative thoughts about the area they live in (push factors) or have positive thoughts about the destination they are moving to (pull factors).

A push factor is something perceived to be negative about the origin area of a migrant (where they are leaving)
A pull factor is something perceived to be positive about the destination area of a migrant ( where they are moving to)
Intervening obstacles are barriers which may stop a flow of migrants reaching their destination (could also be opportunities)

Push and pull factors- Some examples

Intervening obstacles ,barriers or constraints

REMEMBER…Intervening obstacles are barriers which may stop a flow of migrants reaching their destination (could also be opportunities).

Listed below are some of the main intervening obstacles, barriers or constraints.

W Peterson’s five migratory types

In 1958, W.Peterson noted the following 5 migratory types

1.Primitive- only really refers to nomadic pastoralism and shifting cultivation practices by the world’s most traditional societies-

Example: Mongolia- most of the country’s 2.5 million citizens live rurally as nomadic pastoralist moving to find pasture for their cattle, sheep, goats and yaks. Rainfall is unreliable so movement is frequent. Nomadic herding camps composed of a few households, move within a large territory.

2.Forced- This refers to a migration where people have little choice but to leave their country or area. This could be for political reasons, persecution, natural disasters or environmental catastrophe.

Example: Indonesian forced migration- 1900-1950

Indonesia’s population is very unevenly distributed , with most people living on just four of the many islands (Bali, Java, Madura and Lombok). Between 1900 and 1950 over 500,000 Indonesian’s were moved from over populated islands to less populated ones. They were offered land and equipment to get started. However, conflict with locals already living on those islands has lead to violence and resentment.

3.Impelled- These migrations are often also called forced migrations. They take placed under a perceived threat , either human or physical, all though there is more of a choice than in forced migrations.

Example: Libya 2011 – An uprising began in Libya in 2011 when many people tried to overthrow the leader Colonel Gaddafi after 41 years in power. He was determined to hang onto power and so a civil war erupted. Many people were impelled to leave the country to escape the war.

4.Free- This refers to migration in which the individuals have chosen to migrate of their own free will. This might be for many reasons, such as economic reasons ( to find work) or to join family in another country.

Example: Botswansa 1960’s-1980’s

When Botswana became an independent country in 1966 , it was one of the poorest countries in the world and less than 1% of its population lived in urban areas. With a GDP of only US$300, the standard of living was low. Many men migrated to neighbouring South Africa to work in gold mines. As many as 40,000 Botswanan men worked in South African gold mines between 1970 and 1980. During the 1980’s South Africa reduced the number of migrant workers it allowed and this migration route was reduced.

5.Mass- Mass migration is free migration, but on a large scale when a mass of people move in a common migration route.

Example: Formation of Israel 1948-1951

On 14 May 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate, David Ben-Gurion, the head of the Jewish Agency, declared “the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel”.

Between the years of 1948-1951 688,000 Jewish immigrants moved to Israel which meant a doubling of the number of Jews in this region at this time. The first people to reach this state were survivors of the holocaust , many from camps in Germany, Austria and Italy.

Migration Models

A migration model is created when someone comes up with a common pattern in migration which could be represented visually or explained.

1) The Todaro Model: About how an individual’s income changes as they migrate from rural to urban areas in LEDCs

An American economist called Michael Todaro suggested a common pattern for the income that a migrant will experience if they move from a rural area to an urban area in an LEDC.

He suggested that not only would they experience this pattern but that they would be aware of it, from previous friends or family that had migrated before them. They therefore would weigh up the costs and benefits of moving

They were well aware that would have to spend money to get to the urban area and would maybe not make money there for a while , but the long term benefits would be better than staying in the rural area

The graph below shows the Todaro Model

( typical income of a young rural to urban migrant)

2) Stark’s new economies of migration model: About how a families economic situation may change as a child migrates from a rural to an urban area in LEDCs

Stark argues that Todaro’s model only considers the individual migrating, but that most migrants think of their family as well.
Their families act together to spread the cost and all benefit eventually.

Stark’s model is shown below as a flow diagram to suggest how the family helps the migrant and what they get back in return.

3) Marxist/ Structuralist Theory Model: About how migration occurs in LEDCs for purposes of jobs in production for large capitalist companies in MEDCs to the detriment of the LEDC workers.

This theory suggests that capitalism is the cause of most migration within LEDCs or from LEDCs to MEDCs
Cheap migrant labour from LEDCs is used to aid production for large capitalist MEDC companies
The MEDC companies benefit more from this arrangement than the migrants themselves

Internal migration

Remember- Internal migration is moving within a country.

These movemements could be …….

-Rural to rural

– Urban to Urban

– Rural to Urban (Urbanisation)

-Urban to Rural (Counterurbanisation)

– Stepped migration

Remember- A rural area is the countryside (villages). An urban area is a large town or city.

Internal migration 1: Rural to urban migration in China (Urbanisation)

Urbanisation: The growth in the proportion of people living in towns and cities (LEDC- rural to urban migration) . This is happening on a very large scale in China.

Internal migration2: Urban to rural migration: Counterurbanisation

Counterurbanisation is the process of people moving away from urban areas to rural areas (mainly in MEDCs)

Who is moving?

Middle Class Families
Young Professionals
Young Families
Affluent people moving of their own accord.

It is also important to remember that this does also occur in LEDCs! In some cities in LEDCs people are returning to the countryside also.

Why are people migrating from urban to rural areas in MEDCs such as the UK?

Mini case study- movement of people from London to more rural SE areas of England

Reasons for urban to rural migration

Air pollution in London had risen with the increase in road vehicles
The rural areas outside London seemed peaceful and unpolluted
They felt London had become an unfriendly place and villages would have the community spirit that was lacking in inner city areas.
Even though their work places were still in London, transport to commute from some villages around London has improved, meaning you can live outside London but still work in it.
The growth in ICT (email, fax, video calls), means that some work can be done from a village outside London without the need for commuting.

Consequences on source area (London)

As a large percentage of the migrants will be commuting to work traffic congestion increases. The problem is accentuated by the fact that they will be driving on narrow country roads.
In London, many affluent people have moved out of the inner city to rural areas, leaving just the poorest groups and their social problems behind.
Areas in inner city London are now in decline- with increase in crime and derelict buildings

Consequences on receiving area (rural SE village)

House prices are pushed up in their villages as migrants from London sell expensive city properties and earn higher city wages. This can force young people to leave the village because they cannot afford a house.
Traditional rural services have started to close in the village as the new population relies on services of the urban environment such as the supermarket. The closures of village stores and post offices have caused major problems in many rural areas.
Those shops and services that have survived in rural areas often find that they have to change to meet the needs of the new population. So the pub becomes a restaurant, the blacksmith now makes garden furniture and the butcher a delicatessen.
Often commuter villages just outside London grow in size, and start to become more urban in their nature- this area can be called the urban-rural fringe.

Internal migration 3: Stepped migration

Stepped migration is essentially , a migrant/s migrating from a rural area to a large urban area, but splitting this into smaller steps at a time. It was initially studied in Nigeria, as migrants moved from smaller villages in steps to the large city of Lagos

Internal migration 4: Intra urban movements

An intra-urban movement is different from urban to urban migration. Urban to urban migration is when someone moves from one urban area to another urban area. An intra-urban movement is when someone moves inside one urban are a (e.g. from one area of Kota Kinabalu to another)

These intra-urban movements are often linked to life cycles (different stages of someone’s life). Or to how much income they have.

Mini case study of Intra Urban Movements in London

Studies in the UK have shown that the average person living in London will often move around the city in a set pattern depending on their income and where they are in their life cycle.

Middle Income Life Cycle Movements

Children will often begin their life in a semi-detached house in the suburbs.
Once they are old enough to leave home, they often wish to move further into the city to be close to work, entertainment and night life.
When they have made a decision to settle down and have children, the city centre often lacks space and the safety they wish for, so they move out to the suburbs again into a smalls tarter home, as this is often all they can afford.
As their income increases, with pay rises and job promotions, they can move into larger houses as their children are growing older
Once their children have left home and they have retired , they have little need for a large house, so may often move into a retirement smaller home.

Low- Income Life Cycle Movements

Children in a lower income family, may begin their life in a council house just outside the city centre as their families will not be able to afford a house in the suburbs
Once they have left home they too wish to move further into the city to be closer to entertainment and nightlife, so move into a rented room in the city centre
If their income has remained low, when they have children they will not be able to afford to move out to the suburbs, so will get a smaller council flat to live in
As they get older and have older children, and need more space, the council may move them onto a semi-detached council house, further out of the city
Once their children have left home and they have retired, they may need to move into a council owned retirement home.

International Migration: Forced or Voluntary?

International and Internal Migration can be forced or voluntary. Have a look at the definitions below of some key migrant types.

An economic migrant = Is someone who migrates voluntarily for the purposes of finding work or making money

An asylum seeker = Is someone who has left their home country have applied to another country for recognition as a refugee and are awaiting a decision on their application

A refugee = is a person who has been forced to leave home and country because of ‘a well founded fear of persecution’ on account of race, religion, social group or political opinion.

CAR-Refugees-forced-from-their-homes-by-rebels

An internally displaced person = is someone who has been forced to leave his / her home for reasons similar to a refugee but who remains in the same country.

Voluntary Migration: Case study of economic migration

Filipino migration movement to Malaysia

Watch the following clip and jot down why the Filipino’s have moved to Malaysia, what impacts it has had on them and on Malaysia

Look at the table below to see the impacts this economic migration has had on

– The Filipino Migrants

– The receiving country (Malaysia)

– The source country (Philippines)

Forced Migration: Case study of a refugee movement

Rwandan refugees flee to the Democratic Republic of Congo and other countries surrounding Rwanda

In 1994- 2 million people left Rwanda- and most ended up living in refugee camps for up to 2 years in neighbouring countries

Cramped, crowded conditions in one of the refugee camps in eastern The Democratic Republic of Congo led to the rapid spread of cholera, causing the death of more than 50,000 within a few weeks

But why did this happen??

The history of Rwanda is complicated, but a very simplified history leading up to this refugee movement can be viewed below

A brief summary of what happened

There are two major ethnic groups in Rwanda, the Hutu and the Tutsi.
They lived in the same areas and spoke the same language but there had been tension between these two groups for a long time.
When the country was colonised by the Belgians in 1916 they claimed that the Tutsi were superior to the Hutu because they had lighter skin.
The Belgians made the Tutsi the ruling class, giving them better jobs, housing and educational opportunities and charging them with keeping the Hutu ‘in their place’.
Anger built up in the Hutus and in 1959 – 20,000 Tutsi were killed in a series of riots.
Many Tutsi’s then fled to neighbouring Uganda where the children of these refugees formed the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF).
Their aim was to overthrow the President of Rwanda, Juvenal Habyarimana (who was a Hutu) and return to their homeland.
In April 1994 the Hutu President’s plane was shot down, sparking a campaign of violence from the Hutu’s against the Tutsi

Over 800,000 Rwandans were killed in the space of 100 days as the Hutu’s seized their opportunity to redress years of repression and began massacring the Tutsi’s
An unofficial Hutu militia group called the Interahamwe (‘those who attack together’) were responsible for much of the violence
But soldiers and police officers were also to blame.
What did the rest of the world do to help?
News reports of the slaughter reached the West via the TV crews covering the unstable political situation before the outbreak.
But little was done to help the Tutsi.
Whilst foreign governments evacuated their nationals they did not send military help to Rwanda
The United Nations peace-keeping force stationed there at the time of the outbreak were ordered to remain neutral.
The UN withdrew their forces after ten soldiers were killed.

So where did the refugees come from?

Many of the refugees in the camps were tutsi’s who fled the violence against them
But also, In July the Tutsi-led rebel RPF captured Kigali, the Rwandan capital and the government collapsed.
Over two million Hutu fled to the Democratic Republic of Congo fearing a genocide on them in return

Patterns of Migration

You need to be able to use graphs and other resources in the exam, and you also need to recognise major patterns of international migration.

Migration patterns = Common trends that can be seen in the way in which people migrate and the direction they travel in

Use the graphs below to describe the patterns of migration you can see. Remember the following tips for describing a pattern of migration:

1) Look for the overriding pattern first and state what it is – e.g. Largest migratory movement shown is from Mexico to the USA …

2) Next add any data you can from the resource e.g. 1 million people move per year

3) Describe any smaller patterns you can see in the same way

4) Look for any anomalies to this pattern.

Resource 1: Some of the world’s most current migration routes

Resource 2: Net migration per country

Resource 3: Number 1 country of origin for migrants from each major religion

Final case study: Your own big case study of Mexican Migration to the USA

The movement of Mexicans to the USA has been one of the largest migration streams over the last 40 years, due to the rare example where an MEDC has such a large border with an LEDC.

It is thought that around 500,000 people make the journey from Mexico to the USA each year, some legally and some illegally. Many of the USA population are of Mexican origin as can be seen from the US Census of 2000 A brief history of the immigration movement ● In the early part of the twentieth century the American government allowed the recruitment of Mexican workers as guest workers. Young Mexican men called Braceros were invited to work on US farms when there was a labour shortage during the World Wars ● There was very little illegal migration from Mexico to the USA until the early 1980s, which was stimulated by a combination of high population growth in Mexico and the economic crisis of the early 1980s. ● Mexican workers have found employment mainly in agriculture, construction, various manufacturing industries and in low paid service jobs. ● As attitudes in the USA hardened against illegal immigrants, Congress passed the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) in 1986. ● Labour migration continued at a high rate even after economic and employment growth in Mexico improved in the late 1990s. ● By 2006 there were an estimated 12 million Mexican-born people living in the US. This amounted to around 11 per cent of living people born in Mexico. ● There is a very strong concentration of the US-Mexican population in the four states along the Mexican border; California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. The concentration is particularly strong in California and Texas. ● Mexican culture has had a sustained impact on many areas in the US, particularly urban areas close to the border. ● The Mexican population in the United States has undergone a process of assimilation over time (become integrated into main stream society) ● A migrant culture has become established in many Mexican communities ( this means people expect to migrate at a certain age) Below is a very brief summary of the push and pull factors and consequences

You must look back at your notes on this case study for more detail where you need it!

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Geography of Migration

Introduction, general overviews.

Historical and Modern Perspectives
Internal and International Migration
Forced versus Voluntary Migration
Legal versus Irregular Migration
Temporary versus Permanent Migration
Gender and Migration
Development and Migration
Human Capital and Migration

Other Subject Areas

Forthcoming articles expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section.

Indigeneity
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Geography of Migration by Wei Li , Emily Skop , Adriana Morken LAST REVIEWED: 23 August 2017 LAST MODIFIED: 23 August 2017 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199874002-0038

Migration—a spatio-temporal process that evolves over space and time—involves the continual reshaping of place as persons move between various origins and destinations. Geographers are especially interested in the process because of the interconnections and spatial linkages that are formed when people move. The numbers of flows and channels that are created as a result of migration have risen dramatically in the past two centuries, and the result is the constant transformation both of sending and receiving areas. The patterns, causes, and consequences of migration are innumerable and include complicated, multiscalar economic, political, cultural, and demographic effects, all of which are studied by geographers.

Numerous comprehensive overviews of migration are available. Some works, such as Mavroudi and Nagel 2016 ; Castles, et al. 2014 ; Samers 2010 ; Brettell and Hollifield 2014 ; Massey, et al. 1993 ; and Sassen 1990 , examine the global character and patterns of international migration and also theorize about the underlying causes of the process, including migration’s fundamental links with globalization, development, poverty, human rights, social justice, conflict, and national security. Since the 1960s especially, multiple theories have emerged to try to explain the root causes of human migration patterns, whether permanent, cyclical, or temporary in nature. Proponents of world systems theory argue that migration emerges in response to capitalist penetration into noncapitalist or developing societies. Rather than viewing it as a product of individual or household decisions, Massey, et al. 1993 uses this theory to explain migration as “a structural consequence of the expansion of markets within a global political hierarchy” (p. 41). At the other theoretical extreme, the microeconomic version of neoclassical theory posits that the decision to migrate is ultimately based on an individual’s rational, self-interested calculation of the social, economic, and personal costs and benefits involved. According to this theory, individuals who migrate do so because the anticipated advantages of geographic relocation outweigh any potential disadvantages. Unsettled by the inadequacy of research and theoretical frameworks that privilege either individual migrants (usually conceived of as males or genderless) or global structures and processes, Brettell and Hollifield 2014 takes great strides toward incorporating analyses of gender, social networks, and intrahousehold power relations into migration theory. Other studies (e.g., Hirschman, et al. 1999 ; Portes and DeWind 2008 ; Koser 2016 ) assess these issues as well; additionally, they explore the multiple consequences of migration, including both positive and negative outcomes for sending and receiving societies, as well as for migrants themselves. Readers interested in immigration issues may also read the Oxford Bibliographies in Sociology article “ Immigration ” by Irene Bloemraad and Edwin Lin.

Brettell, Caroline B., and James F. Hollifield, eds. Migration Theory: Talking across Disciplines . 3d ed. New York: Routledge, 2014.

Many social science disciplines are involved in migration analysis, including anthropology, economics, sociology, political science, history, and geography. This edited volume brings together a number of well-known scholars to articulate how a wide range of different disciplines study migration. The goal is to provide multiple perspectives, and to familiarize the reader with a broad overview of how scholars think about migration.

Castles, Stephen, Hein de Haas, and Mark J. Miller. The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World . 5th ed. New York and London: Guilford, 2014.

DOI: 10.1007/978-0-230-36639-8

This book examines how modern patterns of migration are rooted in historical relationships and are shaped by a multitude of political, demographic, socioeconomic, geographical, and cultural factors. It is perhaps the most cited work on migration and is frequently used as a textbook in upper-division undergraduate courses and graduate seminars because of its wide scope and depth.

Hirschman, Charles, Philip Kasinitz, and Josh DeWind, eds. The Handbook of International Migration: The American Experience . New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1999.

This volume includes six introductory chapters by leading scholars who discuss theories explaining root causes of human migration, including the neoclassical economic approach, the household approach, world systems theory, social network theory, cumulative causation, and transnationalism. The remaining chapters focus on the US experience, especially the impact of migration that is felt both at the individual and societal levels.

Koser, Khalid. International Migration: A Very Short Introduction . 2d ed. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2016.

DOI: 10.1093/actrade/9780198753773.001.0001

What sets apart this overview of migration is its concise nature. It takes the huge topic of migration and provides a succinct synopsis of the ways in which scholars define, measure, and conceptualize the migration process. The tone of the book is especially accessible, making it valuable to many audiences, and the interspersing of various case studies makes the process real to the reader.

Massey, Douglas S., Joaquín Arango, Graeme Hugo, Ali Kouaouci, Adela Pellegrino, and J. Edward Taylor. “Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal.” Population and Development Review 19.3 (1993): 431–466.

DOI: 10.2307/2938462

Most scholars focus either on the structural, institutional, or individual factors that lead to migration. This groundbreaking work concludes that all these factors are influential and are supported in some way or another by the available evidence. This conclusion serves only to underscore the point that migration is a very complex process.

Mavroudi, Elizabeth, and Caroline Nagel. Global Migration: Patterns, Processes, and Politics . London: Routledge, 2016.

This addition to the migration literature provides broad understanding of global migration patterns and processes, but also detailed case studies drawn from numerous international case studies. The authors are geographers, thus highlighting the ways that migration reinforces current intercultural dynamics and global interconnectedness.

Portes, Alejandro, and Josh DeWind, eds. Rethinking Migration: New Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives . New York: Berghahn, 2008.

This volume includes fourteen chapters from well-known migration scholars. Part 1 provides a discussion of various conceptual and methodological developments. Part 2 examines the complexity of migration policymaking. Part 3 deals with transnational communities and immigrant entrepreneurship, and Part 4 delves into unauthorized immigration and intergenerational dynamics. Part 5 discusses the role of religion in migrant incorporation.

Samers, Michael. Migration . London and New York: Routledge, 2010.

This overview illustrates the unique spatial concepts that geographers bring to the conversation on migration, by including place, space, borders, scale, and territory throughout the book. Also helpful is the glossary of terms and extensive bibliography provided at the end of the text.

Sassen, Saskia. The Mobility of Labor and Capital: A Study in International Investment and Labor Flow . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

This groundbreaking work utilizes world systems theory to argue that migration emerges in response to capitalist penetration into noncapitalist or developing societies. Rather than seeing it as a product of individual or household decisions, this book seeks to explain migration as a structural consequence of the expansion of markets within a global political and economic hierarchy.

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