Validity
Among the selected 141 articles, 28 (19.86%) were published in the Journal of Cleaner Production , 20 (14.18%) were published in Food Policy , and 5 (3.55%) were published in Quality-Access to Success . The rest of the journal names are visualized in Figure 2 .
The most popular journals publishing the 141 included articles. Others denotes journals that were cited once or twice.
After the 141 articles have been extracted, they were analyzed and summarized individually by listing all the discussed food security drivers, as well as the recommended policies for the improvement of food security and sustainable food production. Then, we synthesized the extracted information from all sources in order to identify the gaps, list the similarities between all the resources, and extract significant insights regarding the main drivers of food security and the recommended policies [ 26 ].
Analysis of the retrieved literature revealed 34 different drivers of food security, as visualized in Figure 3 . Detailed information, along with a full citation list for all the drivers, is provided in Appendix A .
Summary of the major drivers of food security.
Most papers discussed food loss and waste (FLW) and emphasized its impact on food security [ 6 , 19 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 ]. Around one-third of the food produced globally (1.3 million tons) is wasted or lost [ 96 ]. Basher, Raboy [ 43 ] has argued that, if we could save just one-fourth of the wasted food, it would be enough to feed all the world’s undernourished people, contributing positively to FS. The previous finding supports our research findings that FLW is the primary driver of FS. To reduce FLW, Halloran, Clement [ 6 ] has argued that effective communication, more efficient food packaging, and a better consumer understanding of food packaging could lead to solutions. To decrease food loss, Garcia-Herrero, Hoehn [ 62 ] has suggested improving food labelling, enhancing consumer planning, and developing technological advances in packaging and shelf life for perishable products. Morone, Falcone [ 83 ] has suggested the repetition of large-scale research to help define a set of policies encouraging the transition to a new model for consumption that promotes sustainably procured food and dramatically reduces the amount of waste (more details are provided in Section 3.2 ).
Additionally, several authors have considered food security policy (FSP) as a driver of food security in its different forms [ 56 , 63 , 65 , 69 , 70 , 74 , 79 , 85 , 94 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 ]. The primary goal of establishing food security policies that consider the factors influencing individuals and groups is to reduce poverty and eliminate hunger. One example is safety-net programs or public food assistance programs (FAPs). The main goal of providing safety-net programs is to increase food consumption among poor people and improve food security [ 102 ].
Many papers have discussed the importance of technological advancement as an enabler of food security [ 56 , 57 , 58 , 63 , 69 , 71 , 74 , 77 , 85 , 90 , 94 , 95 , 109 , 116 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 140 , 141 ]. The use of technology to promote behavioral changes has increasingly become a vital instrument to reduce food waste and indirectly improve food security [ 130 ]. Mobile applications offer households helpful guidance on increasing shelf life and experimenting with dishes using leftovers [ 58 ]. Shukla, Singh [ 130 ] has elaborated that, at present, farmers have access to mobile applications that provide them with reasonably and timely priced information.
Some authors have discussed sustainable agricultural development and practices as enablers of food security [ 56 , 57 , 59 , 64 , 71 , 73 , 94 , 97 , 105 , 109 , 111 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 124 , 130 , 132 , 134 , 136 , 137 , 139 , 142 , 143 , 144 , 145 , 146 , 147 ]. Some authors have discussed local production enhancement as a driver of food security to enhance the self-reliance of countries [ 57 , 69 , 85 , 87 , 89 , 94 , 98 , 103 , 105 , 109 , 112 , 117 , 120 , 134 , 137 , 144 , 148 , 149 ]. For example, Ahmed, Begum [ 98 ] has emphasized how, following the GCC ban, Qatar took several successful steps to foster local production, support domestic businesses, and promote the consumption of locally produced food by its citizens. Some authors have argued that building the capacities of small farmers is essential to achieving FS. Education policies are critical for educating farmers, building their capacities, and increasing their human capital; moreover, educational programs should also include food preparation and health education programs in order to ensure the safety of consumed food [ 101 ].
The government’s role in managing a country’s agriculture can also be seen as a driver of food security [ 67 , 75 , 84 , 86 , 100 , 109 , 116 , 117 , 119 , 121 , 137 , 138 , 147 , 150 , 151 , 152 ], as it is responsible for various aspects such as designing, testing, and implementing the right policies to ensure the welfare of its citizens, while providing the necessary assistance to small-scale farmers and ensuring their safety and security in all aspects of life. Governments in developing nations must focus on R&D, agriculture infrastructure (e.g., technologies for irrigation and soil preservation), expansion services, early warning systems, or subsidized farm income in order to alter the production function of the population [ 101 ].
Many authors have discussed the importance of food safety policies as an enabler of food security [ 61 , 64 , 69 , 103 , 105 , 111 , 112 , 129 , 149 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 , 159 ]. Food safety policies include food and water safety at several points throughout the supply chain where food-borne diseases might develop [ 69 ]. Environmental policies are also seen as a fundamental enabler of food security [ 59 , 73 , 121 , 124 , 130 , 135 , 139 , 147 , 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 ]. Regardless of the various approaches discussed by the authors, they all agreed that environmental protection would help to ensure food availability for current and future generations. According to some authors, trade policies [ 69 , 94 , 95 , 103 , 111 , 112 , 114 , 123 , 129 , 141 , 146 , 161 , 164 ] and import policies [ 69 , 95 , 100 , 103 , 120 , 124 , 126 , 129 , 146 ] are enablers of food security. Regulating international trade can help to ensure food security. Lowering trade barriers, for example, has been proposed as a way to mitigate the adverse effects of market regulation caused by climate change [ 141 ].
Many authors have recognized policies that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption and increase consumer awareness and knowledge of the environmental impact of their purchases as a driver of food security [ 52 , 60 , 67 , 69 , 86 , 133 , 144 , 151 , 163 , 165 , 166 , 167 ]. Others have stressed proper communication among all stakeholders as a driver of food security [ 6 , 56 , 68 , 69 , 84 , 92 , 129 , 130 , 156 , 157 , 168 ]. Some authors have considered risk management as an enabler of food security [ 94 , 117 , 118 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 145 , 154 , 155 , 157 ]. For example, the aims of building a disaster risk reduction framework in the Pacific include boosting resilience, protecting investments (e.g., in infrastructure, operations, and FS), and decreasing poverty and hunger [ 169 ].
Some authors have proposed the effective gleaning process as a driver of food security [ 70 , 72 , 74 , 80 , 84 , 92 , 142 , 170 ]. Gleaning is the collection of the remaining crops in agricultural fields after their commercial harvest, or just in crop fields where their harvest is not cost-effective. Some old cultures have fostered gleaning as an early form of social assistance [ 80 ]. Some authors have considered the management of government food reserves to be a food security driver [ 64 , 104 , 112 , 117 , 118 , 124 , 136 ]. Despite the high cost of storing food, any country must maintain adequate food reserves to serve the country in case of a crisis scenario [ 171 ]. Some authors have considered integrative policies (i.e., food–water–energy, food–energy, or water–food) as a driver of food security due to their impact on environmental improvement through natural resource handling efficiency [ 56 , 73 , 133 , 139 , 172 , 173 ]. Some authors have considered establishing dietary standard policies as an enabler of food security [ 69 , 151 , 163 , 174 ]. The government should impose policies on healthy food consumption to prevent obesity, such as prohibiting trans-fats. Moreover, they should restrict trans-fat usage in food outlets, establish institutional food standards, implement menu labelling regulations for chain restaurants, and ensure that disadvantaged people have better access to healthy meals [ 151 ].
Authors have highlighted various additional arguments or policies that are considered drivers for FS such as establishing public programs to influence diets in a healthy manner, reducing yield volatility [ 85 , 94 , 105 , 119 , 124 , 126 , 175 ], the country’s natural resources [ 85 , 105 , 119 , 124 , 137 , 145 , 162 , 163 , 176 ], geopolitical and political stability [ 69 , 98 , 104 , 117 , 123 , 124 , 142 ], agricultural infrastructure [ 64 , 114 , 116 , 118 , 142 , 146 , 175 ], food distribution infrastructure [ 71 , 75 , 76 , 112 , 177 , 178 ], economic integration [ 109 , 112 , 123 , 179 , 180 ], collaboration among all supply chain stakeholders [ 75 , 130 , 134 , 157 ], proper measurement of food security dimensions [ 123 , 181 , 182 , 183 ], urban agriculture policies [ 56 , 147 , 148 ], adjustments in dietary structure [ 59 , 86 , 163 ], establishing employment programs for poor household representatives [ 110 , 152 ], customer engagement in designing public policies [ 158 ], and trust in public institutions [ 166 ].
Analysis of the 141 retrieved papers revealed 17 major recommended policies, as visualized in Figure 4 . We also determined sub-policies under each category which were grouped based on common characteristics, relevance, and how they were categorized in the papers. The complete list of sub-policy categories and related references is provided in Appendix B .
The main 17 recommended policies and statistics.
Most authors recommended establishing FSP, in general, as a primary solution for food insecurity in developing and developed countries [ 56 , 57 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 69 , 81 , 85 , 87 , 89 , 91 , 94 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 126 , 127 , 130 , 131 , 133 , 134 , 137 , 142 , 144 , 145 , 148 , 149 , 151 , 152 , 175 , 177 , 180 , 182 , 184 , 185 ]. Many authors have suggested food consumption policies that offer safety-net programs or public food assistance programs (FAPs) such as food price subsidies, cash-based programs, structural pricing adjustments, or micro-credits as enablers of FS. The main goal of providing safety-net programs is to increase food consumption among poor people and improve food security [ 102 ]. Given the solid bidirectional causal link between poverty and malnutrition, FAPs have been recognized as critical components of the overall poverty reduction strategy. Food aid policies and initiatives can fill the gaps left by the for-profit food system and the informal (non-profit) social safety nets, ensuring food security for disadvantaged individuals, families, and communities [ 108 ]. Several authors have recommended establishing policies to enhance the performance and asset bases of small-scale farmers, such as loans, subsidies, access to information, and knowledge-sharing, to address food insecurity. Governments should adopt direct interventions such as structural price adjustments and targeted food subsidies to enhance the food access of farmers by lowering market prices and stabilizing consumption during high food price inflation [ 116 ]. Others have recommended establishing government input subsidy programs (input subsidy policies) that provide farmers with subsidies for investment into high-yielding technology (e.g., automation, fertilizers, high-yield seed). They all claimed this as an effective policy instrument for agricultural development, but each focused on a different mechanism. Shukla, Singh [ 130 ], for example, has discussed public distribution programs; Sinyolo [ 131 ] has emphasized policies aimed at increasing the amount of land planted with enhanced maize varieties among smallholder farmers; Wiebelt, Breisinger [ 124 ] has suggested investments in water-saving technologies, while Tokhayeva, Almukhambetova [ 137 ] have proposed the development of an agricultural innovation system. Others have recommended rural development policies to reduce yield volatility and improve the agricultural infrastructure (e.g., irrigation and water-saving technologies). Governments in developing nations must focus on R&D, agricultural infrastructure (technologies for irrigation and soil preservation), expansion services, and early warning systems [ 101 ]. Technological advancement, in general, is seen as a vital element in reducing yield volatility [ 85 ]. Capacity-building policies (e.g., educational, training, and technical support) have received considerable attention in the literature as a fundamental component of urban farming initiatives, and as attempts to promote self-reliance and networking. Capacity building in many areas connected to urban agriculture is essential for equipping residents with knowledge and expertise [ 148 ]. To enhance FS, some researchers have suggested policies supporting locally produced food, diversified agricultural production policies, policies that impact farm-level commodity pricing, food stock policies, establishing policies to increase the income of farmers, buffer stock policies, and resource allocation policies (for a complete list of references, see Appendix B ).
Many authors have proposed different policy recommendations to reduce food waste and, thus, food insecurity [ 6 , 19 , 51 , 52 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 103 , 130 , 138 , 144 , 150 , 160 , 167 , 168 , 170 , 177 ]. Many have agreed on the importance of policies that promote information and education campaigns that spread awareness at household and public levels by improving meal planning and management in consumers. However, each author suggested a different approach. For example, Schanes, Dobernig [ 58 ] have discussed face-to-face door-stepping campaigns (online and in traditional newspaper leaflets), word-of-mouth, and television shows or movies. However, Septianto, Kemper [ 66 ] have highlighted the importance of social marketing campaign design and framing (having vs. not having) in conveying the intended message to consumers. Tucho and Okoth [ 73 ] have asserted the advantages of producing bio-wastes and bio-fertilizers from food waste and human excreta (in a food–energy–sanitation nexus approach), and also advocated for educating families on how to do so at the household level. Xu, Zhang [ 86 ] has argued that governments should help society to develop a logical perspective on food consumption and aggressively promote the habit of eating simple meals, particularly in social catering. Von Kameke and Fischer [ 52 ] and Zorpas, Lasaridi [ 60 ] have emphasized the importance of teaching customers about efficient meal planning to reduce food waste. Von Kameke and Fischer [ 52 ] have proposed using the Nudging tool rather than campaigning. Xu, Zhang [ 86 ] have suggested initiating suitable policy instruments to nudge individuals to adopt sustainable consumption habits, with important implications for decreasing food waste and increasing food security in China. Smart (innovative) food packaging and labelling policies have received significant attention in the literature, as they are critical in reducing food waste and, thus, improving FS. The nature, size, and labelling of the packaging impact the lifetime of the food. Smart packaging innovations and new technologies are steadily penetrating markets, thus increasing the shelf-life of foods through enhanced protection, communication, convenience, and control [ 58 ].
Food banks, food sharing, and food rescue policies have also received significant attention in the global literature, as they help reduce food waste and improve FS. Food banking is a critical long-term rescue policy for re-distributing surplus food to those in need and reducing poverty and food insecurity [ 80 , 92 ]. Several authors have recommended positive sanctions such as financial rewards, tax credits, federal and state funding, vouchers, or reduced taxes to decrease food waste and improve FS. Positive sanctions consist mainly of financial incentives to encourage restaurants and grocery retailers to donate their leftover food [ 60 ]. Addressing liability concerns might be one incentive, as the research participants have highlighted this as a universal barrier and that this issue, in particular, must be handled [ 51 ]. Negative sanction policies have received considerable attention in the literature as a tool for reducing food waste and improving FS. These include fines and fees imposed on companies and individuals accountable for food waste [ 58 ]. Taxes and fines are a potential way to manage and motivate restaurants and retailers to donate their leftover food to charities and community centers [ 65 ].
The establishment of policies that regulate the sharing of information and knowledge among supply chain stakeholders has received some attention in the literature in terms of reducing food waste and improving food security. Comprehensive food waste legislation has been discussed as a potential enabler of food security. A possible regulatory tool would be to revise and remove unnecessary food safety requirements that result in excessive food waste levels [ 58 ]. According to Halloran, Clement [ 6 ], food waste increased due to European food safety regulations and standardization. Food waste recycling policies have been used as a method to reduce food waste. Food waste can be utilized for value generation at any point of the food supply chain process through efficient techniques, then reincorporated into the cycle [ 77 ]. Food waste has a long history as a source of ecologically friendly animal feed [ 61 ].
A few authors have highlighted the impact of technological advancement (e.g., mobile applications) as a strategy to reduce food waste. Some authors have proposed implementing gleaning operation policies that provide tax incentives and government assistance to gleaners in order to decrease food waste. Some authors have proposed implementing peak storage reduction policies, such as stock-holding incentives. Nudging tools (which nudge people toward forming sustainable consumption behaviors) have been mentioned by a few authors.
Food safety policies received significant attention in the retrieved literature [ 61 , 64 , 69 , 70 , 103 , 105 , 111 , 112 , 120 , 125 , 129 , 130 , 137 , 138 , 149 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 , 159 ]; however, they have been discussed in various different forms. Few authors have discussed food quality and food hygiene compliance certifications. Compliance with sanitary standards is required to maintain the best practices for preventing food-borne diseases and food security threats [ 155 ]. Other authors have discussed the importance of food safety standards. Meanwhile, few authors have emphasized the importance of food safety throughout the supply chain, but each proposed a different strategy to achieve it. For example, some authors have suggested using an effective IT system [ 130 ], RFID [ 138 ], or developing food safety training policies [ 155 ].
Many authors have advocated for the implementation of trade policies to address food insecurity in developing and developed countries [ 94 , 95 , 101 , 103 , 111 , 112 , 119 , 123 , 129 , 136 , 141 , 146 , 148 , 149 , 152 , 157 , 161 , 164 , 178 , 180 ], but in different contexts. For example, some have suggested establishing infrastructure development policies that target agricultural logistic infrastructure, or improving the speed and quality of shipping logistics. In contrast, some authors have agreed on the importance of state trading and private trade-supporting policies. Others have suggested the removal of tariff and non-tariff barriers, while a few authors recommended reliable marine connection and transportation logistics policies.
Environmental policies are a fundamental enabler of food security [ 59 , 73 , 94 , 120 , 121 , 124 , 130 , 135 , 139 , 141 , 145 , 147 , 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 , 166 ]. However, authors have focused on many different aspects of these policies. Some authors, for example, have emphasized the importance of establishing policies to mitigate the effects of climate change. Others were too specific, suggesting greenhouse gas reduction policies, and proposed penalizing non-compliance. Due to the strong links between climate change, poverty, and food insecurity, some authors have proposed establishing coordinating policies among the three. Other authors have stressed the consideration of policies that encourage the optimization of fertilizer use.
Many authors have considered food import policies as a solution to food insecurity [ 94 , 95 , 100 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 109 , 112 , 116 , 117 , 119 , 120 , 124 , 126 , 134 , 146 ]; however, most authors provided different opinions regarding the most effective policy to implement. For example, some authors have stressed the importance of policies that provide direct government financial assistance to local agriculture, or the importance of policies that sustain local agricultural product prices compared to imported products. Some have recommended providing temporary tax benefits for agricultural investment, while others recommended import ban (substitution) policies. A few authors have recommended direct budget subsidies, subsidized loan interest rates, and strategies for the diversification of imported food origin.
Many authors have discussed the importance of establishing a common agricultural policy (CAP) to address sustainable agriculture [ 56 , 57 , 64 , 89 , 109 , 111 , 118 , 119 , 132 , 142 , 143 , 149 , 161 , 172 , 184 , 186 ]. Others have stressed the importance of food surplus policies in enhancing a country’s food security status [ 51 , 58 , 70 , 72 , 75 , 76 , 79 , 82 , 84 , 90 , 91 ]. Some authors have suggested strategies to regulate a company’s liability regarding the donation of surplus food. A few authors have proposed food policies that subsidize the purchase of surplus food—also known as “ugly food”—by controlling for prices and surplus item characteristics. Some authors have suggested establishing food loss policies. However, few authors have specified the need for policies promoting food loss quantification.
Many authors have discussed the policies that promote traceability across the whole supply chain as an enabler for food security [ 56 , 69 , 103 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 137 , 138 , 168 , 178 ]. However, the different authors discussed different technologies such as investment into information technology such as RFID, effective IT systems, ICT systems, and blockchain technology. Government policies should promote investments into traceability systems that focus on rapid withdrawal in unsafe food scenarios such as product recall regulations, fines imposed on hazardous product distributors, and food-borne food risk monitoring [ 129 ]. Many authors have discussed various risk management strategies to improve a country’s food security [ 94 , 117 , 118 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 145 , 154 , 155 , 157 ]. However, each considered a different approach to overcome the risk. Specifically, they have discussed food scandal policies, the COVID-19 pandemic, programmed risk identification, proactive policy measures to handle flood crises, early warning systems for natural disasters, or risk management throughout the food supply chain. Some authors have highlighted water quality policies such as efficient water-use policies, improving water resources policies, using water-efficient crops, investments into water-saving technologies, and food and water safety throughout the supply chain.
Some authors have discussed the management of government food reserves as an enabler of food security [ 64 , 104 , 112 , 117 , 118 , 124 , 136 ], and others have discussed integrative and coherent policies between food, water, and energy (as a nexus) [ 56 , 73 , 133 , 139 , 172 , 173 ]. Meanwhile, other authors have discussed policies that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption, improving consumer status awareness and knowledge regarding the ecological impact of their purchases [ 60 , 69 , 133 , 144 , 163 , 165 ]. Few authors have addressed the importance of dietary standard policies [ 69 , 151 , 163 , 174 ], urban agriculture policies [ 56 , 147 , 148 ], and food-aid policies [ 118 , 150 ].
Some policies were suggested in one paper only such as devising the right population policy in China [ 85 ], flexible retail modernization policies [ 158 ], policies that facilitate short-term migration [ 187 ], policies to stimulate equitable economic growth through manufacturing and services [ 95 ], and sound research governance policies [ 140 ].
In this section, we discuss the polices and drivers in the greater areas, then compare them based on specific contexts. This approach serves to provide better understanding, thus informing decision-makers about the importance of choosing the right policies through considering many food security dimensions. By looking deeply at the extracted food security drivers and policies and the way in which they can be applied to each country’s context, we take an example from the MENA region. The MENA region includes a diverse range of nations, including low-income and less-developed (e.g., Sudan, Syria, and Yemen), low–middle-income (e.g., Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Morocco, and Tunisia), upper middle-income (e.g., Jordan, Lebanon, and Libya), and high-income (e.g., the UAE, Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, Israel, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia) countries [ 126 ]. As food availability is a serious problem in the MENA region low-income countries (Syria and Yemen), due to war and violent conflicts [ 188 ], policies aimed at increasing food availability continue to pique the interest of policy-makers. In these countries, where citizens are incapable of fulfilling their basic food needs [ 189 ], the existence of food security policies in different forms is crucial for achieving food security [ 53 , 97 , 98 , 124 , 184 ], more than FLW policies. Policy-makers should focus on ensuring the availability of either locally produced or imported food, which requires appropriate trade policies to deal with food shortages and improve the availability dimension in these countries. Trade policies should focus on creating infrastructure development policies that target agricultural logistic infrastructure, improve the speed and quality of shipping logistics, and establish reliable marine connections and transportation logistics policies that remove tariff and non-tariff barriers.
Policy-makers should establish import policies that sustain local agricultural product prices compared to imported products, provide direct government financial assistance to local agriculture, and provide temporary tax benefits for agricultural investment.
Additionally, the governments should improve food access in the MENA region low-income countries by reducing or stabilizing consumer and producer food prices. To enhance food access, FSPs (e.g., education policies in general and capacity-building policies) may help to improve individual human capital. Governments also must provide supplemental feeding programs, typically targeting vulnerable groups in need of special diets, such as pregnant women and children [ 101 ].
Moreover, the government should improve credit access through the following means: policies that enhance the performance and asset base of small-scale farmers; the existence of policies that impact farm-level commodity pricing, thus retaining farmers and increasing local production; the existence of government input subsidy programs for individuals, and the existence of policies supporting locally produced food. These are all possible policies to improve the MENA region FS. Governments and global health organizations should promote food utilization in MENA low-income countries through the development of policies that monitor overall food quality, such as access to clean water and micronutrient fortification, or through individual educational programs on safe food preparation [ 155 ]. Finally, enhancing food quality can optimize the individual nutrient absorption [ 101 ].
In contrast, discussions of food security in the MENA region high-income countries have indicated that food availability, access, and utilization are generally higher and not a problem. However, food stability is low, which requires the attention of policy-makers to improve FS. Food stability impacts the other food security pillars (access, availability, and utilization). Moreover, it requires the economic, political, and social sustainability of food systems, which are vulnerable to environmental conditions, land distribution, available resources, conflicts, and political situations [ 190 ]. Food stability necessitates increased efforts and expenditures to achieve food security in the sustainable development goals, especially in light of increased academic and governmental interest in incorporating sustainability values into policies.
As food waste is prevalent in these countries, FLW policies are more critical than FSP, which is in alignment with our findings regarding food security drivers. FLW makes it difficult for the poor in developing countries to access food by significantly depleting natural resources such as land, water, and fossil fuels while raising the greenhouse gas emissions related to food production [ 115 ]. Addressing food loss and waste in these countries can hugely influence the reduction of wasted food and indirectly enhance food security. The number of food-insecure individuals may be reduced in developing regions by up to 63 million by reducing food loss, which will directly reduce the over-consumption of cultivated areas, water, and greenhouse gas emissions related to food production [ 115 ]. According to Abiad and Meho [ 189 ], food waste produced at the household level differs across MENA-region countries. For example, it ranges from 68 to 150 kg/individual/year in Oman, 62–76 kg/individual/year in Iraq, 194–230 kg/individual/year in Palestine, and 177–400 kg/individual/year in the UAE. It is critical to take more aggressive but scientifically sound initiatives to minimize FLW, which will require the participation of everyone involved in the food supply chain such as policy-makers, food producers and suppliers, and the final consumers [ 191 , 192 ]. Food waste reflects an inefficient usage of valuable agricultural input resources and contributes to unnecessary environmental depletion [ 191 , 193 ]. Furthermore, food loss is widely recognized as a major obstacle to environmental sustainability and food security in developing nations [ 194 ]. Preventing FLW can result in a much more environmentally sustainable agricultural production and consumption process by increasing the efficiency and productivity of resources, especially water, cropland, and nutrients [ 115 , 191 , 192 , 195 ]. Preventing FLW is crucial in areas where water scarcity is a prevalent concern, as irrigated agriculture makes up a sizeable portion of total food production, and yield potential may not be fully achieved under nutrient or water shortages [ 191 , 196 , 197 ]. According to the study of Chen, Chaudhary [ 197 ], food waste per capita in high-income countries is enough to feed one individual a healthy balanced diet for 18 days. Chen, Chaudhary [ 197 ] also found that high-income countries have embedded environmental effects that are ten times greater than those of low-income countries, and they tend to waste six times more food by weight than low-income countries. Consequently, implementing proper FLW policies in high-income countries can help to alleviate the food insecurity problem while maintaining the economic, social, and environmental sustainability of future food production.
Implementing effective food storage techniques and capacities is considered a key component of a comprehensive national food security plan to promote both food utilization and food stability; furthermore, proper food storage at the household level maintains food products for a more prolonged period [ 198 ]. Encouragement of economic integration between MENA region countries is very applicable considering the heterogeneity of these countries. For example, countries with limited arable land and high income, such as the UAE and Saudi Arabia, can invest in countries with a lower middle income, such as Egypt, and use its land to benefit both countries. On the other hand, Boratynska and Huseynov [ 101 ] have proposed food technology innovation as a sustainable driver of food security and a promising solution to the problem of food insecurity in developing countries. Due to the higher food production demand to support the expanding urban population while having limited water and land availability, higher investments in technology and innovation are needed to ensure that food systems are more resilient [ 190 ]. Boratynska and Huseynov [ 101 ] have argued that, in general, using innovative technologies to produce healthy food products is frequently a concern. However, improving the probability that innovative food technology will enable the production of a diverse range of food products with enhanced texture and flavor while also providing a variety of health advantages to the final consumer is essential. Jalava, Guillaume [ 193 ] have argued that, along with reducing FLW, shifting people’s diets from animal- to plant-based foods can help to slow environmental degradation.
The MENA region example described above can be adapted to different regions based on their food security situation, and relevant policies can be devised to improve food security more sustainably.
Food security is a complicated and multi-faceted issue that cannot be restricted to a single variable, necessitating the deeper integration of many disciplinary viewpoints. It is essential to admit the complexity of designing the right policy to improve food security that matches each country’s context [ 46 ] while considering the three pillars of sustainability. Furthermore, it is of utmost importance to implement climate-friendly agricultural production methods to combat food insecurity and climate change [ 12 ]. Mapping the determinants of food security contributes to better understanding of the issue and aids in developing appropriate food security policies to enhance environmental, social, and economic sustainability.
This research contributes to the body of knowledge by summarizing the main recommended policies and drivers of food security detailed in 141 research articles, following a systematic literature review methodology. We identified 34 food security drivers and outlined 17 recommended policies to improve food security and contribute to sustainable food production. Regarding the drivers, one of the foremost priorities to drive food security is reducing FLW globally, followed by food security policies, technological advancement, sustainable agricultural development, and so on (see Appendix A ). Regarding the recommended policies, most studies have detailed the contents and impacts of food security policies, food waste policies, food safety policies, trade policies, environmental policies, import policies, the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), food surplus policies, and so on (see Appendix B ).
We assessed the obtained results in comparison to the latest version of the GFSI. Using the GFSI (2021) indicators as a proxy resulted in the identification of gaps and specific policy implications of the results. The idea was to identify which of the policies and drivers have been already implemented and which have not (or, at least, have not been very successfully implemented). We used the GFSI as it is a very well-established benchmarking tool used globally by 113 countries to measure the food security level. We examined the indicators mentioned under each of the four dimensions of food security, and listed associations with the identified policies and drivers found in the literature. Accordingly, we suggest the addition of two dimensions to the current index:
The first dimension relates to measuring the sustainability dimensions that each participating country adopts in its food production process. We noticed that many authors stressed the importance of the existence of clear environmental policies that drive long-term food security. However, the current GFSI lacks indicators measuring this dimension. The reviewed literature suggested environmental indicators considering optimized fertilizer use, carbon taxes, aquaculture environment, bio-energy, green and blue infrastructure, gas emissions reduction policies, policies to reduce the impacts of climate change, and heavy metal soil contamination monitoring.
The second dimension is related to consumer voice representation within the GFSI. The reviewed literature suggested implementing policy measures that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption and improve the consumer status, consciousness, and knowledge regarding the ecological impact of their purchases. Any sustainability initiative should be supported and implemented by the final consumer.
Additional gaps in the policies and drivers of food security were identified and allocated under the relevant indicators in the GFSI based on the four dimensions of food security. Under the affordability dimension, we found a lack of policies in the reviewed literature addressing the Inequality-adjusted income index. Regarding the Change in average food costs indicator, we observed that the policies that exist in the literature concern the farmer level only (e.g., policies that impact farm-level commodity pricing and policies supporting locally produced food), and not all of the citizens at the national level. Additionally, policies that promote traceability across the whole supply chain were missing. There were no policies in the reviewed literature under the food quality and safety dimension representing the following: the dietary diversity indicator; micronutrient availability (e.g., dietary availability of vitamin A, iron, and zinc); regulation of the protein quality indicator; the food safety indicator (specifically the two sub-indicators of food safety mechanisms and access to drinking water), and illustration of the national nutrition plan or strategy indicator. Therefore, future research should pay more attention to and emphasize the importance of such policies, particularly in developed countries seeking to improve their food security status and score high on the GFSI.
Moreover, the reviewed literature suggested “developing food safety training policies” to improve food safety and FS; however, no indicators or sub-indicators within the GFSI represent such training policies. The GFSI developers should pay more attention to safety training practices and include them in the index’s future development. Under the availability dimension, the reviewed literature suggested establishing a food loss policy that promotes the quantification of food loss under the food loss indicator. This indicator should be enhanced through well-articulated policies that address the problem of food loss and attempt to mitigate its impact. However, while there were various policies concerning food waste or surplus, there were no indicators within the GFSI that represented food loss. As food loss and waste was identified as the primary driver of food security in this study, we recommend expanding the GFSI to include food loss quantification and reduction policies under the availability dimension. Finally, under the political commitment to adaptation dimension, some policies were identified in the reviewed literature in two sub-indicators: early warning measures/climate-smart agriculture (e.g., proactive policy measures to handle flood crises, programmed risk identification, and early warning systems for natural disasters) and disaster risk management (e.g., food scandals, COVID-19, and risk management throughout the food supply chain). However, under the other two relevant sub-indicators—commitment to managing exposure and national agricultural adaptation policy—there were no identified policies.
The key contributions of this study to the existing literature are threefold. First, we identified the (34) main food security drivers and the (17) most-recommended policies to improve food security and enhance the future food production sustainability. Several studies have partially covered this area, but none have employed a systematic literature review of 141 papers covering such an scope in this topic. The gravity of food security worldwide is well established; hence the contribution of this work. Second, we provide a reflection of policies/drivers on the latest version of the GFSI, resulting in more tangible policy implications (see Section 5.1 ). Third, through a systematic literature review, we identified elements not listed under the GFSI that could be considered in its future revision. Examples include environmental policies/indicators such as optimized fertilizer use, carbon taxes, aquaculture environment, bio-energy, green and blue infrastructure, gas emission reduction, policies to reduce the impact of climate change, and heavy metal soil contamination monitoring; consumer representation, as the reviewed literature suggested policy measures that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption, as well as improving consumer status, consciousness, and knowledge regarding the ecological impact of their purchases; and traceability throughout the entire supply chain.
In this study, we identified the major drivers and the recommended policies to improve food security and enhance the future food production sustainability based on the reviewed literature. However, we recommend conducting a Delphi research study in consultation with policy-makers and industry experts. A Delphi study can be used to validate the findings of this systematic literature review based on a specific country’s context. This research was conducted using only 141 articles from two databases; therefore, we suggest replicating this research using different databases, which will allow for the inclusion of more related papers. Moreover, this research included only peer-reviewed articles, which may be considered, based on the guidelines of Keele [ 185 ], as a source of publication bias. Future research may consider including gray literature and conference proceedings. This research did not include the three sustainability pillars within its research string; therefore, we recommend considering the inclusion of the three pillars in future research. Future research should also investigate the use of alternative protein food technology innovation, such as plant-based protein, cultured meat, and insect-based protein, as a sustainable solution to the food security problem. Additionally, understanding the factors influencing acceptance of various technologies by the final consumer is particularly important given some regional characteristics such as harsh arid environments and the scarcity of arable land, freshwater, and natural resources.
Food loss and waste | 47/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food waste management | 29/47 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food waste policies | 23/47 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ]. |
Food loss reduction policies | 10/47 | [ , , , , , , , , , ]. |
Food surplus policies | 11/47 | [ , , , , , , , , , , ]. |
Food waste quantification | 11/47 | [ , , , , , , , , , , ] |
food loss quantification | 5/47 | [ , , , , ] |
Food security policies | 37/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Environmental policies | 13/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Public food assistance programs and policies | 24/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Risk management | 10/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food scandals policies | 2/10 | [ , ] |
Early warning systems for natural disasters | 3/10 | [ , , ] |
Risk management throughout the food supply chain | 3/10 | [ , , ] |
Proactive policy measures to handle the flood crises | 2/10 | [ , ] |
Providing food aids (micronutrient supplementation) during disasters | 1/10 | [ ] |
COVID-19 pandemic | 1/10 | [ ] |
The programmed risk identification | 1/10 | [ ] |
Import policies | 9/141 | [ , , , , , , , , ] |
Trade policies | 13/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Economic integration | 5/141 | [ , , , , ] |
Agricultural sustainable development and practices | 27/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Technology advancement | 36/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Sustainable technology advancement | 27/36 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
High-yield seed varieties | 8/36 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Investment in R&D (e.g., precision farming) | 4/36 | [ , , , ] |
Information technology and IT advancement | 3/36 | [ , , ] |
The use of mobile applications | 3/36 | [ , , ] |
The use of nanotechnology in agriculture | 2/36 | [ , ] |
The use of biotechnology in agriculture | 2/36 | [ , ] |
The use of genetically modified (GM) crop. | 2/36 | [ , ] |
Local production enhancement | 18/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Farm production diversity | 9/141 | [ , , , , , , , , ] |
Building farmers capacities (small scale farmers) | 18/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Employment programs for poor households’ representatives | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Public programs to influence diets in a healthy manner | 9/141 | [ , , , , , , , , ] |
Geopolitical and political stability | 7/141 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Food safety and food safety policies | 16/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Reduction of yield volatility | 7/141 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Agriculture infrastructure | 7/141 | [ , , , , , , ] |
The integrative policies (nexus) | 6/141 | [ , , , , , ] |
The proper measurement of food security dimensions | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
The country’s natural resources (cultivated agriculture area) | 9/141 | [ , , , , , , , , ] |
The proper communication among all stakeholders | 11/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Management of government food reserves | 7/141 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Collaboration among all supply chain stakeholders | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
Promotion of the consumer’s education about sustainable consumption and healthy diet | 12/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Effective gleaning process (increasing the food bank’s processing resources) | 8/141 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Food distribution infrastructure | 6/141 | [ , , , , , ] |
Adjustment in the diet structure | 3/141 | [ , , ] |
Dietary standard policies | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
Urban agriculture policies | 3/141 | [ , , ] |
The government role | 16/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Government capital investment in agriculture | 7/16 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Government and public administration’s commitment in enhancing the operational process of food distribution | 3/16 | [ , , ] |
Government regulation for food businesses and households that produce food waste | 2/16 | [ , ] |
Government support for the research that enhances the country food security level | 1/16 | [ ] |
Government vision and commitment to adopt RFID technology | 1/16 | [ ] |
Government commitment in policy development to prevent obesity | 1/16 | [ ] |
Government knowledge of the correlation between market price and sustain the food prices during crises | 1/16 | [ ] |
Customer engagement in designing the public policies | 1/141 | [ ] |
Trust in the public institutions | 1/141 | [ ] |
Food security policies | 59/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food consumption polices that offer safety net | 24/59 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Policies to enhance small-scale farmer performance and assets base such as loans, subsidies, access to information and knowledge sharing | 16/59 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Government input subsidy programs (input subsidy policy) that provide farmers with subsidies to investment in high-yielding technology (e.g., automation, fertilizers, high-yield seed) | 14/59 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Rural development policies to reduce yield volatility and improve the agriculture infrastructure (e.g., irrigation and water-saving technologies) | 14/59 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Capacity building policies (educational, training and technical support) | 14/59 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Policies supporting locally produced food | 12/59 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Education policies in general | 8/59 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Diversified agriculture production policies | 6/59 | [ , , , , , ] |
Policies that impact the farm-level commodity pricing | 5/59 | [ , , , , ] |
Food stock policies which help in predicting global food production information | 4/59 | [ , , , ] |
Establishing policies to increase farmer income | 4/59 | [ , , , ] |
Buffer stock policies | 1/59 | [ ] |
Resource allocation policies (income taxes) | 1/59 | [ ] |
Trade policies | 20/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Establishing infrastructure development policies that target agriculture logistic infrastructure and improve the speed and quality of shipping logistics | 8/20 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
State trading and private trade supporting policies | 7/20 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Removal of tariff and non-tariff barrier | 7/20 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Trade infrastructure development policies | 4/20 | [ , , , ] |
Reliable marine connection and transportation logistics policies | 2/20 | [ , ] |
Food waste polices | 49/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Information and education campaigns that spread awareness at households and public level | 21/49 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food waste reduction policies | 17/49 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Smart (innovative) food packaging and labelling policies | 9/50 | [ , , , , , , , , ] |
Food banks, food sharing or food rescue policies | 8/49 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Positive sanctions such as financial rewards, Tax credits, federal and state funding, vouchers, fewer taxes | 8/49 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Information and knowledge sharing among supply chain stakeholders | 6/49 | [ , , , , , ] |
Comprehensive food waste legislation | 6/49 | [ , , , , , ] |
Negative sanction policies by imposing fines and taxes such as disposal taxes | 6/49 | [ , , , , , ] |
Food waste recycling polices | 5/49 | [ , , , , ] |
Technology advancement (mobile applications) | 2/49 | [ , ] |
Gleaning operations policies (provide tax incentives and governmental support) | 2/49 | [ , ] |
Nudging tool (nudge people in forming sustainable consumption behaviour) | 2/49 | [ , ] |
Policies for peak storage reduction such as incentives for stock holding | 2/49 | [ , ] |
Food waste management policy | 1/49 | [ ] |
Food upcycling with regards to market segmentation based on age | 1/49 | [ ] |
Food loss policy | 10/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , ] |
Policies promoting the quantification of food loss | 3/10 | [ , , ] |
Food surplus policies | 11/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Policies to regulate company’s liability of donating surplus food | 5/11 | [ , , , , ] |
Food policies that subsidize purchases of surplus food “ugly food” by controlling for prices and the attributes of surplus items | 2/11 | [ , ] |
Food safety policies | 22/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food safety standards | 7/22 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Safety throughout the food supply chain | 3/22 | [ , , ] |
Developing food safety training policies | 1/22 | [ ] |
Mandatory state registration for major types of food additives | 1/22 | [ ] |
Food quality and food hygiene compliance certifications | 5/22 | [ , , , , ] |
The integrative and coherent policies between food, water, and energy system nexus. | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
Water–food (WF) nexus approach. | 1/141 | [ ] |
Food–energy–sanitation nexus approach | 1/141 | [ ] |
Water quality policies | 8/141 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Common agricultural policy (CAP) that addresses sustainable agriculture | 16/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Green and blue infrastructure (GBI) policies | 1/16 | [ ] |
Common agricultural policy (CAP) hinders the sustainable intensification | 1/141 | [ ] |
The policies that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption and improving consumer status consciousness and knowledge of their purchases ecological impact | 6/141 | [ , , , , , ] |
Environmental policies | 18/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Gas emission policies, such as greenhouse gas reduction policies | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Policies to reduce climate change impact | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
The coordination of policies between climate change, poverty and food insecurity due to their strong interlinking | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
Efficiency in agriculture water use, irrigation systems | 3/141 | [ , , ] |
The investments in water-saving technologies | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Policies to minimize the impacts of anthropogenic activities on urban soils and enhance the urban agriculture practices | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Soil contamination of heavy metals (cadmium) | 1/141 | [ ] |
Optimization of the fertilizer use policy | 6/141 | [ , , , , , ] |
Carbon tax policy (promotes green economy) | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Aquaculture environmental policies | 1/141 | [ ] |
Bio-energy policies | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Management of government food reserves | 7/141 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Policies that promote traceability across the whole supply chain | 10/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , ] |
Import policies | 16/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Direct governmental financial assistance to local agricultural assistance | 8/16 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Sustaining local agricultural product prices compared to the imported products | 7/16 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Providing temporary tax benefits for agriculture investment | 4/16 | [ , , , ] |
Import ban (substitution) policies | 4/16 | [ , , , ] |
Direct budget subsidies | 2/16 | [ , ] |
Subsidizing loan interest rates | 2/16 | [ , ] |
Diversification of imported food origins strategy | 1/16 | [ ] |
Risk management policies | 10/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food scandals | 2/10 | [ , ] |
COVID-19 | 1/10 | [ ] |
Programmed risk identification | 1/10 | [ ] |
Proactive policy measures to handle the flood crises | 2/10 | [ , ] |
Early warning systems for natural disasters | 3/10 | [ , , ] |
Risk management throughout the food supply chain | 3/10 | [ , , ] |
Dietary standard policies | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
Urban agriculture policies | 3/141 | [ , , ] |
Food aid policies | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Policies discussed by one author only | ||
Devising the right population policy in China | 1/141 | [ ] |
Flexible retail modernization policies | 1/141 | [ ] |
Policies that facilitate short-term migration | 1/141 | [ ] |
Policy to stimulate equitable economic growth through manufacturing and services | 1/141 | [ ] |
Sound research governance policies: to address the expected and unexpected complications of new technologies (nanotechnology) | 1/141 | [ ] |
This research was funded by the UAE Ministry of Education, Resilient Agrifood Dynamism through evidence-based policies-READY project, grant number 1733833.
Conceptualization, S.W., F.A., B.S. and I.M.; methodology, S.W., F.A., B.S. and I.M.; validation, S.W., F.A., B.S. and I.M.; formal analysis, S.W.; investigation, S.W., F.A., B.S. and I.M.; resources, I.M. and B.S.; data curation, S.W.; writing—original draft preparation, S.W.; writing—review and editing, F.A.; visualization, S.W.; supervision, F.A., B.S. and I.M.; project administration, B.S. and I.M.; funding acquisition, B.S. and I.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Conflicts of interest.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Essay on food security.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
According to FAO, “Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food for a healthy and active life.”
This involves four dimensions:
i. Adequacy of food supply or availability;
ii. Stability of supply, without seasonal fluctuations or shortages;
ii. Accessibility to food or affordability; and
iii. Utilisation: quality and safety of food.
These factors include a broad spectrum of socioeconomic issues with great influence on farmers and on the impoverished in particular.
Large shares of the world’s small-scale farmers, particularly in central Asia and in Africa, are constrained by access to markets, while inputs, such as fertilisers and seed, are expensive. With lack of irrigation water, infrastructure and investments, and low availability of micro-finance combined with dependency on few multinational suppliers, crop production is unlikely to increase in those regions where it is needed the most, unless major policy changes and investments take place. These constraints are further compounded by conflicts and corruption.
Agricultural prices are forecast to remain well above the levels of the first half of 2001-10. In addition, a production short of demand, a greater geographical inequity in production and demand, combined with possibly more extreme weather and subsequent speculation in food markets, could generate much greater price volatility than before.
The availability of food within a specific country can be guaranteed in two ways: either by food production in the country itself or by trade.
Increase in productivity can come about by using innovative soil and moisture conservation techniques, e.g., the double plantation techniques adopted by farmers in the Mekong plains of Indo- China and the elaborate terraces and irrigation systems of Bali and South China.
The Green Revolution helped to increase production in cereals in some regions, but the technologies involved had their own limitations.
Developments on the demand side require increase in production in those regions with the highest economic growth or population increase. The majority of these regions will be in emerging economies in Africa and Asia. Nowadays, Africa is especially dependent on food imports. Food production in this region is lagging behind due to limited research investments and the problems for farmers to use the appropriate inputs in their production process.
The world regions are sharply divided in terms of their capacity to use science in promoting agricultural productivity in order to achieve food security and reduce poverty and hunger.
Productivity has risen in many developing countries, mainly as a result of investment in agricultural R&D combined with improved human capital and rural infrastructure. In Africa, the levels of productivity are much lower and their growth has also been slower than in Asia.
One of the major options for significantly raising crop production is increasing the use of mineral fertilisers. The Africa Fertiliser Summit 2006 concluded that the use of fertilisers should be increased to a level of at least 50 kg/ha by 2015.
A major challenge is to find ways of making fertiliser available to smallholders at affordable prices. There is also a need for holistic approaches to soil fertility management that embraces the full range of driving factors and consequences of soil degradation. This would include the integration of mineral and organic sources of nutrients, thereby using locally available sources of inputs and maximising their use efficiency, while reducing dependency upon prices of commercial fertilisers and pesticides. The use of perennials, intercropping and agroforestry systems, such as the use of nitrogen fixating leguminous trees, are ways to increase nutrient availability, and enhance water availability and pest control, in a more sustainable manner.
After 1980, growth in expansion of irrigated area decreased and it is assumed this trend will continue in the near future. One of the reasons is that the areas most suitable for irrigation are already used, leading to higher construction costs in new areas. Current irrigation systems could be improved by investing in water control and delivery, automation, monitoring and staff training.
In most African regions, the major challenge is not the lack of water, but unpredictable and highly variable rainfall patterns with occurrences of dry spells every two years causing crop failure. This high uncertainty and variability influence the risk adverse behaviour of smallholder farmers. Rarely are investments made in soil management and fertility, crop varieties, tillage practices and even labour in order to avoid losses in case of total crop failure.
Managing the extreme rainfall variability over time and space can provide supplemental irrigation water to overcome dry periods and prevent crop failure. In combination with improved soil, this should reduce the risk of total crop failure and enhance the profitability of investments in crop management, for example, fertilisers, labour and crop varieties. Increasing crop canopy coverage reduces evapotranspiration from the soil, improving soil moisture and the provision of water for the crop.
This option has become more and more important with increasing transport possibilities and storing capacities and the growing challenges faced by some countries in their domestic production, including because of limitations in available cropland. International trade in agricultural products has expanded more rapidly than global agricultural GDP.
An increasing share of global agricultural exports originates from developed countries. The EU countries account for most of the global growth.
A large portion of this increase is accounted for by intra-EU trade.
Another perspective of trade is the purchase of land abroad for food production. Responding to recent food crises, a number of countries have started to purchase land abroad for cultivation of – crops needed to support domestic demand.
This is seen as a long-term solution to the high prices of agriculture commodities and increasing demand for Agroforestry products such as palm oil. Among the most active countries owning, leasing or concessioning farmland overseas are China, India, Japan, Saudi Arabia, South Korea and United Arab Emirates. The total area of overseas farmland in different countries was estimated at 5.7 million ha at the end of 2008 or 0.4 per cent of the global cropland area.
A major reason for instability in food supply is high fluctuation in food prices (price volatility). Volatile prices lead to poor investment strategies of producers and immediate impacts on consumers, especially in developing countries where consumers spend a large share of their income on food. Another source of instability is conflicts, which increase food supply risks.
Trade policies that limit market access, increase the volatility of commodity prices, unfairly subsidise developed country exports and constrain the trade policy flexibility of the developing world affect the stability and security as well as overall economic well-being of developing countries.
A quarter of the world’s governments implemented some export restrictions in the period of high prices in 2007-08 to ensure domestic food security. The impacts of these restrictions varied from panic-buying to the cultivation of smaller areas due to high input costs and the expectation of low product prices. These restrictions even increased price volatility of food products on the world market, thereby decreasing the food security of other countries.
With open markets, developing countries are very vulnerable to fluctuations in global food supply and prices and temporary protection of their own agricultural markets is promoted for these countries.
Conflicts greatly increase the risk of food supply instability. Countries in conflict and post-conflict situations tend to be food insecure, with more than 20 per cent of the population, and in many cases far more, lacking access to adequate food.
Accessibility to food refers not only to physical access but also affordability. Access to markets includes transportation of commodities and its costs and the transmission of price developments to producers. Poor transmission of price incentives to producers results in increasing the gap between consumers and producers especially as diets change.
As urbanisation increases, large urban markets are created and with this the scope of the establishment of big supermarket chains increases. This has implications for the entire food supply chain. Supermarkets have become an emerging force in South Asia, particularly in urban India, since the mid-1990s. The growth and power of international food corporations affect the opportunities of small agricultural producers in developing countries. Market entry is often barred to the majority of producers because of stringent safety and quality standards of food retailers.
Trade and urbanisation affect consumer preferences. The rapid diversification of the urban diet cannot be met by the traditional food supply chain in the hinterland of many developing countries. Consequently, importing food to satisfy the changing food demand could be relatively easier and less costly than acquiring the same food from domestic sources.
In Asia, traditional rice-eating societies are consuming increasing quantities of wheat in the form of bread, cakes, pastry and other products. Countries that traditionally [imported rice for meeting food shortfalls may now be shifting towards increasing levels of Wheat imports. This trend is also evident in the import of other temperate products like vegetables, milk and dairy products and temperate fruit. The overall result is that we are beginning to see a homogenisation of food tastes across the globe, but with regional variations.
Poor connections between urban and rural areas hinder price transmissions towards local markets, broadening the gap between urban demand and rural production in increasing demand for traditional products or for product diversification. The lack of access to markets is most evident in Africa, although large parts of Latin America and Asia are also experiencing long transport hours to reach markets. Consequently, domestic prices do not always follow international prices as an FAO report pointed out in 2006.
The periods of rising real prices were generally associated with real exchange rate devaluations. Relaxation of government controls over prices and market systems also led to gains in producer prices in some cases. In other instances, import liberalisation appears to have contributed to a decline in the real domestic prices of some commodities. Consequently, global shortages of food and feed that lead to global price increases are not followed by production increases at the local level.
Accessibility to food is also determined by the long-term trend in food prices (which is a different issue from price volatility).
In 2007-08 food prices were driven by a combination of rising fuel costs, production of biofuels, and unfavourable weather conditions, with trade restrictions boosting upward price pressures.
As the cost, and subsequent use, of fertiliser is strongly correlated with price, a potentially higher oil price would lower the use of fertiliser or further increase the food price.
Fuel price is one of the main determining factors for fisheries. Rising energy prices have a strong impact on capture as well as aquaculture (for the production and transport of fish feed) and lead to higher costs during the processing, transport (particularly air freight) and distribution of fish products. Small-scale fisheries, which depend on outboard motors and small diesel engines, have especially suffered from the spiralling rise in fuel prices.
While a higher oil price increases demand for biofuels, there is a catch: the agricultural commodities used nowadays or biofuels were previously used for feed and fodder; in the circumstances, demand for agricultural commodities as for factor inputs increases in this case. The overall decline in food prices is not expected to be so marked because of biofuel use.
Most of the quantitative and qualitative indicators of food security at the household level are linked to the poverty issue. As Amartya Sen (1981) points out, the poor do not have adequate means or entitlements to secure food, even when food is locally or regionally available. It is interesting to note that merely increase in income does not necessarily ensure improved nutritional status. Access to gainful employment, suitable technologies and other productive resources are important factors influencing undernutrition.
Though, overall, soaring food prices are blamed for their impacts on human vulnerability, there are two sides to this picture. Increasing food prices do have a positive effect on net food-selling households (FAO, 2008), augmenting their incomes and allowing more possibilities for farmers to afford investments in production inputs.
This underlines the need to minimise short-term price volatility and stimulate slow increases in long- term food prices, in order to enhance investments in the agricultural system and bridge the gap between developed and developing countries as well as between rural food producing and urban food consuming regions. Ideally, these developments should take environmental aspects into account to achieve sustainable agricultural systems that will meet the food demand of all the world citizens and eradicate hunger.
However, increasing yield and food supply without simply continuing the conventional expansion of cropland and rangeland and use of fertilisers and pesticides—at the cost of biodiversity and future generations—will require major investments and implementation of food energy considerations in the entire food production and consumption chain.
As already mentioned in discussing the problems of nutrition patterns, much requires to be accomplished to acquire equitability in this regard.
Apart from quantitative aspect, qualitative aspects of diet such as consumption habits and nutritional needs also affect food security. In the absence of adequate attention to qualitative aspects of food, the ability of the individual to sustain the benefits of development gets affected.
A number of more novel matters will need to be dealt with, such as:
(i) The positive and negative impacts on non-communicable diseases of intensive production systems, not only in terms of health (e.g. nitrite in vegetables, heavy metals in irrigation water and manure, pesticide use), but also in terms of dietary quality (e.g. leaner meats in intensive poultry production);
(ii) The effects of longer food chains, in particular of longer storage and transport routes, such as the higher risk of -deterioration (even if most of this may be bacterial and hence not a factor in chronic diseases), and the use and misuse of conserving agents and contaminants; and
(iii) The effects of changes in varietal composition and diversity of consumption patterns, for example, the loss of traditional crop varieties and, perhaps even more significantly, the declining use of foods from “wild” sources.
In the short term, the volatile prices can be decreased by price regulation and creation of larger cereal stocks to buffer the tight markets of food commodities and the subsequent risks of speculation. Safety nets need to be provided to alleviate impacts of rising prices and food shortage. Subsidies on agricultural commodities and inputs that are aggravating the food crisis need to be reduced/removed and investments made to shift to sustainable food systems and food energy efficiency.
In the middle term, efforts should be made to develop alternatives for feeds for animals and fish. Our ability to change the feed destined for livestock and aquaculture is probably greater than that of changing people’s food choice habits, which are not as easily controlled. Finding alternative feed sources provides a huge potential for increasing the availability of cereal for human consumption.
For other feed sources to become a sustainable alternative to the current use of cereals, their exploitation must not be resource- demanding. This poses a big challenge, since most of the easily available feed sources have already been fully exploited, although some alternatives still exist.
By using discards, waste and other post-harvest losses, the supply of animal and fish feed can be increased and be sustained without expanding current production, simply by increasing energy efficiency and conservation in the food supply chain.
There has been little focus on salvaging food already harvested or produced. An important question centers around the percentage of food discarded or lost during harvesting, processing, transport and distribution as well as at the point of final sale to consumers. Reducing such losses is likely to be among the most sustainable alternatives for increasing food availability.
Discarded fish from’ marine fisheries is the single largest proportion lost of any food source produced or harvested from the wild. The proportion is particularly high for shrimp bottom trawl fisheries. If sustainable, the amount of fish currently discarded at sea could alone sustain more than a 50 per cent increase in aquaculture production. However, many of these species could also be used directly for human consumption.
The potential to use unexploited food waste as alternative sources of feed is also considerable for agricultural products.
Food losses in the field (between planting and harvesting) could be as high as 20-40 per cent of the potential harvest in developing countries due to pests and pathogens. Postharvest losses vary greatly among commodities and production areas and seasons.
Substantial losses and wastage occur during retail and consumption due to product deterioration as well as to discarding of excess perishable products and unconsumed food. Food waste represents a major potential, especially for use as animal feed, which, in turn, could release the use of cereals in animal feed for human consumption.
Recovering energy from agricultural wastes is becoming increasingly feasible at the industrial production level; investments in technology enhancement of existing systems and innovation in new waste management systems is called for to support this expanding green economy.
Farmers need to be supported in developing diversified and resilient eco-agricultural systems. This includes management of extreme rainfall and use of inter-cropping to minimise dependency on external inputs like artificial fertilisers, pesticides and over irrigation.
Increased trade and improved market access can be achieved by improving infrastructure and reducing barriers to trade.
In the long term, awareness needs to be created about the pressures of increasing population growth and consumption patterns on sustainable functioning of the ecosystem. Alternative sources of food have to be explored and developed.
Leave a reply click here to cancel reply..
You must be logged in to post a comment.
Related sdgs, end hunger, achieve food security and improve ....
Publications.
As the world population continues to grow, much more effort and innovation will be urgently needed in order to sustainably increase agricultural production, improve the global supply chain, decrease food losses and waste, and ensure that all who are suffering from hunger and malnutrition have access to nutritious food. Many in the international community believe that it is possible to eradicate hunger within the next generation, and are working together to achieve this goal.
World leaders at the 2012 Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) reaffirmed the right of everyone to have access to safe and nutritious food, consistent with the right to adequate food and the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger. The UN Secretary-General’s Zero Hunger Challenge launched at Rio+20 called on governments, civil society, faith communities, the private sector, and research institutions to unite to end hunger and eliminate the worst forms of malnutrition.
The Zero Hunger Challenge has since garnered widespread support from many member States and other entities. It calls for:
The Sustainable Development Goal to “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture” (SDG2) recognizes the inter linkages among supporting sustainable agriculture, empowering small farmers, promoting gender equality, ending rural poverty, ensuring healthy lifestyles, tackling climate change, and other issues addressed within the set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals in the Post-2015 Development Agenda.
Beyond adequate calories intake, proper nutrition has other dimensions that deserve attention, including micronutrient availability and healthy diets. Inadequate micronutrient intake of mothers and infants can have long-term developmental impacts. Unhealthy diets and lifestyles are closely linked to the growing incidence of non-communicable diseases in both developed and developing countries.
Adequate nutrition during the critical 1,000 days from beginning of pregnancy through a child’s second birthday merits a particular focus. The Scaling-Up Nutrition (SUN) Movement has made great progress since its creation five years ago in incorporating strategies that link nutrition to agriculture, clean water, sanitation, education, employment, social protection, health care and support for resilience.
Extreme poverty and hunger are predominantly rural, with smallholder farmers and their families making up a very significant proportion of the poor and hungry. Thus, eradicating poverty and hunger are integrally linked to boosting food production, agricultural productivity and rural incomes.
Agriculture systems worldwide must become more productive and less wasteful. Sustainable agricultural practices and food systems, including both production and consumption, must be pursued from a holistic and integrated perspective.
Land, healthy soils, water and plant genetic resources are key inputs into food production, and their growing scarcity in many parts of the world makes it imperative to use and manage them sustainably. Boosting yields on existing agricultural lands, including restoration of degraded lands, through sustainable agricultural practices would also relieve pressure to clear forests for agricultural production. Wise management of scarce water through improved irrigation and storage technologies, combined with development of new drought-resistant crop varieties, can contribute to sustaining drylands productivity.
Halting and reversing land degradation will also be critical to meeting future food needs. The Rio+20 outcome document calls for achieving a land-degradation-neutral world in the context of sustainable development. Given the current extent of land degradation globally, the potential benefits from land restoration for food security and for mitigating climate change are enormous. However, there is also recognition that scientific understanding of the drivers of desertification, land degradation and drought is still evolving.
There are many elements of traditional farmer knowledge that, enriched by the latest scientific knowledge, can support productive food systems through sound and sustainable soil, land, water, nutrient and pest management, and the more extensive use of organic fertilizers.
An increase in integrated decision-making processes at national and regional levels are needed to achieve synergies and adequately address trade-offs among agriculture, water, energy, land and climate change.
Given expected changes in temperatures, precipitation and pests associated with climate change, the global community is called upon to increase investment in research, development and demonstration of technologies to improve the sustainability of food systems everywhere. Building resilience of local food systems will be critical to averting large-scale future shortages and to ensuring food security and good nutrition for all.
Updates for many countries have made it possible to estimate hunger in the world with greater accuracy this year. In particular, newly accessible data enabled the revision of the entire series of undernourishment estimates for China back to 2000, resulting in a substantial downward shift of the seri...
Our planet faces multiple and complex challenges in the 21st century. The new 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development commits the international community to act together to surmount them and transform our world for today’s and future generations....
The outcome document of Rio+20, “The Future We Want” (United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, June 2012) acknowledged that SIDS remains a special case for sustainable development. Building on the Barbados Programme of Action and the Mauritius Strategy, the document calls for the conv...
Three-quarters of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans and seas which are an engine for global economic growth and a key source of food security. The global ocean economic activity is estimated to be USD 3–5 trillion. Ninety percent of global trade moves by marine transport. Over 30 percent of g...
The fight against hunger can only be won in partnership with governments and other non-state actors, among which the private sector plays a fundamental role. FAO is actively pursuing these partnerships to meet the Zero Hunger Challenge together with UN partners and other committed stakeholders. We ...
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is convinced that hunger and malnutrition can be eradicated in our lifetime. To meet the Zero Hunger Challenge, political commitment and major alliances with key stakeholders are crucial. Only through effective collaboration with go...
The Sustainable Development Goals offer a vision of a fairer, more prosperous, peaceful and sustainable world in which no one is left behind. In food - the way it is grown, produced, consumed, traded, transported, stored and marketed - lies the fundamental connection between people and the planet, ...
The 2012 UNEP Foresight Process on Emerging Global Environmental Issues primarily identified emerging environmental issues and possible solutions on a global scale and perspective. In 2013, UNEP carried out a similar exercise to identify priority emerging environmental issues that are of concern to ...
This Agenda is a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity. It also seeks to strengthen universal peace in larger freedom, We recognize that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest global challenge and an indispensable requirement for su...
Farmers’ organizations (FOs) in Bangladesh have the potential to be true partners in, rather than “beneficiaries” of, the development process. FOs bring to the table a deep knowledge of the local context, a nuanced understanding of the needs of their communities and strong social capital. Increasing...
Continued population growth, urbanization and rising incomes are likely to continue to put pressure on food demand. International prices for most agricultural commodities are set to remain at 2010 levels or higher, at least for the next decade (OECD-FAO, 2010). Small-scale producers in many developi...
When the 69th United Nations General Assembly begins its General Debate on 23 September 2014, 464 days will remain to the end of 2015, the target date for achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). A stock-taking of where we stand on reducing hunger and malnutrition shows that progress in hu...
The 2024 SDG Global Business Forum will take place virtually as a special event alongside the 2024 High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF), the United Nations central platform for the follow-up and review of the SDGs. The Forum will place special emphasis on the SDGs under
The theme of the 2024 High-Level Political Forum (HLPF) is “Reinforcing the 2030 Agenda and eradicating poverty in times of multiple crises: the effective delivery of sustainable, resilient and innovative solutions”. The 2024 HLPF will have an in-depth review of Sustainable Development Goa
The theme of the 2024 High Level Political Forum (HLPF) is “Reinforcing the 2030 Agenda and eradicating poverty in times of multiple crisis: the effective delivery of sustainable, resilient and innovative solutions”. The 2024 HLPF will have an in-depth review of SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hu
According to the United Nations Food Systems Summit that was held in 2021, many of the world’s food systems are fragile and not fulfilling the right to adequate food for all. Hunger and malnutrition are on the rise again. According to FAO’s “The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023
Ⅰ. Purpose of the Workshop At the halfway point of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the application of science and technology in developing sustainable agricultural practices has the potential to accelerate transformative change in support of the Sustainable Development Goals. In that r
On 12 July 2023 from 10 AM to 12 PM (EDT), FAO and its co-publishing partners will be launching, for the fifth time, the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) report at a Special Event in the margins of the ECOSOC High-Level Political Forum (HLPF). The 2023 edition
The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World is an annual flagship report to inform on progress towards ending hunger, achieving food security and improving nutrition and to provide in-depth analysis on key challenges for achieving this goal in the context of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021 (SOFI 2021) report presents the first evidence-based global assessment of chronic food insecurity in the year the COVID-19 pandemic emerged and spread across the globe. The SOFI 2021 report will also focus on complementary food system solu
Ministerial meeting on food security and climate adaptation in small island developing states.
The proposed meeting will offer SIDS Ministers and Ambassadors the opportunity to explore the implications of the SAMOA Pathway as it relates to food security and nutrition and climate change adaptation. The ultimate objective is to enhance food security, health and wellbeing in SIDS. Ministers an
Title | Type | Date |
---|---|---|
Secretary-General Reports | 3-Aug-2021 | |
Secretary-General Reports | 3-Aug-2021 | |
Other documents | 10-Jul-2020 | |
Programme | 7-Jul-2020 | |
Concept Notes | 26-Jun-2020 | |
Other documents | 30-May-2019 | |
Secretary-General Reports | 2-Aug-2018 | |
28-Feb-2018 | ||
Secretary-General Reports | 8-Aug-2017 | |
Secretary-General Reports | 25-Jul-2017 | |
Background Notes | 26-Apr-2017 | |
Secretary-General Reports | 3-Feb-2017 | |
Secretary-General Reports | 3-Aug-2016 | |
Other documents | 1-Mar-2016 | |
Resolutions and decisions | 23-Dec-2015 |
Title | Category | |
---|---|---|
Presentations | 17-Jul-2020 | |
Statements | 12-Jul-2016 | |
Session 2 | 22-Oct-2015 | |
Session 7 | 22-Oct-2015 | |
Session 5 | 22-Oct-2015 | |
Session 4 | 22-Oct-2015 | |
Session 3 | 22-Oct-2015 | |
Session 2 | 22-Oct-2015 | |
Session 2 | 22-Oct-2015 | |
Session 1 | 22-Oct-2015 | |
Session 7 | 22-Oct-2015 | |
Session 5 | 22-Oct-2015 | |
Session 3 | 22-Oct-2015 | |
Session 3 | 22-Oct-2015 | |
Session 2 | 22-Oct-2015 |
Problem statement, implications, conclusion and recommendations.
Over the past 80 years, the global population has increased from 2 billion to 7 billion. In the next 40 years, it is predicted to rise to 9 billion or more. With the emerging challenges of climatic change and reduced agricultural production across the globe, the challenge remains on how to feed a population of 9 billion or more people adequately.
The growing population creates a necessity for increasing global food production capacity. However, increasing food production presents challenges due to the decreasing soil fertility and climatic change, among other challenges. By noting that the world population will continue to rise amid various challenges in ensuring the availability of sufficient food supply and reserves, it is necessary to develop appropriate measures for ensuring food security for the rapidly expanding population.
Food insecurity has a direct correlation to malnutrition, which is an enormous contributing factor to undernourishment-related ailments. Radimer (2002, p.860) defines food security as the accessibility to adequate and healthy foods by all people at all times to foster their healthy living. Drawing from this definition, food insecurity occurs in situations of limited access to safe food, which has sufficient nutritional values, through socially acceptable mechanisms.
Nations that seek to maintain healthy populations place a critical emphasis on food security. However, challenges that require solutions are encountered in this noble endeavour. This paper investigates these challenges and measurements that are most effective in feeding the rapidly expanding global population.
Over the past few decades, global world food production had been in pace with population growth (FAO 2003). This consistency was attributed to the then growing food production technologies such as the development of new drought-resistant varieties through advances in biotechnology, mechanisation, and substitution of rain-dominated agriculture with irrigation and interventions in improving or replacing the depleted soil fertility (Borlaug & Dowswell 2008). However, with an expected population rise to hit the 9billion mark in the next 40 years, food insecurity is a major problem that is likely to afflict many nations across the globe.
Following the risks that are posed by global warming, which influences food production levels across the globe, the global population will encounter the challenge of inadequate availability of food. Thus, nations have to address the problem of feeding the increasing global population amid the challenges of the production of adequate food.
To resolve the problem of food insecurity, and with reference to the escalating global population, future food production will have to grow by more than 100% in the next 50 years. To help in reducing problems such as climatic change due to global warming, which leads to low food production, increased food production has to be done in an environmentally friendly and sustainable manner. For future generations, FAO (2003) informs that cereals that have a projected increase in production by 50% by 2030 will continue dominating the list of the most demanded foods. However, in developing nations, especially in the Sub-Saharan Africa where no green revolution has ever occurred, the supply of cereals will remain lower than demand, thus triggering an increase by over 150 million tonnes (Borlaug & Dowswell 2008, p.8).
This observation means that to ensure food security, placing more emphasis on increased production in nations that expect higher demand than supply will be an important solution to the problem of food insecurity.
To feed the rising global population, three possible strategies need to be considered. These plans include increasing the area under cultivation, increasing the net yields, and raising the annual frequency of cropping. The land is a constant resource. Hence, increasing population exerts pressure on the limited land through colonisation of new lands and utilisation of the current cropping land in building settlements. This situation suggests that increased food production will require more effective utilisation of the land that is currently under cultivation to yield higher production. In fact, Borlaug and Dowswell (2008, p. 9) confirm that an increase of about 85% of food production across the globe will be realised from land that is presently under agriculture.
Therefore, raising crop yields and the cultivation frequency are the most feasible ways of ensuring food security in the coming years. Implementation of these strategies requires a commitment by governments in facilitating the appropriate intervention for their success in resolving the problem of food insecurity now and in the future.
Feeding a growing world population by putting in place strategies for increasing the frequency of cultivation and cropping implies that the incorporation of better technologies of food production is inevitable. Borlaug and Dowswell (2008, p.3) support this assertion by claiming that the world possesses the necessary technology of feeding even more than 9 billion people sustainably. However, accessibility to these technologies is limited and in some situations, uninsured due to poverty, IP rights restrictions, and governmental regulations. For instance, genetic modification of the existing crop varieties can offer an important opportunity for increasing cropping rates through the creation of crops with lower maturity period.
However, different nations limit the adoption and application of this technology to ensure food sufficiency through restrictions on IP rights of technology developers and different opinions on its appropriateness in fostering environmentally and healthy food for human consumption.
The contribution of genetic modification in ensuring sustainable production through reduced costs of production is evident in many nations. For instance, in the US, in 2002, upon using genetically modified seeds such as maize, soybeans, and cotton, the nation saved more than 21, 000 tonnes of pesticides (Borlaug & Dowswell 2008). In developing nations, increasing production levels implies committing more resources in reducing reliance on rain-based agriculture. For instance, through irrigation, different nations can increase their food production levels by mitigating the risk of poor rain patterns due to global climate change. Irrigation can become even more effective, and hence a low-cost approach for increasing crop yield when used in conjunction with greenhouse technology.
With projections that the world’s population will hit the 9 billion mark by the next 40 years, nations are in dire need of mechanisms of resolving the problem of low food production. The paper has focused on scrutinising the challenges and possible strategies for feeding a growing world population. In my opinion, increasing the land that is under cultivation is a viable option, but impractical due to land encroachment by the increasing population. Thus, feeding the increasing global population requires an increase in the frequency of cultivation and/or raising yields per acreage.
It is recommended that science, as opposed to ideologies or emotions, should guide people in terms of developing and implementing policies for increasing food production. Therefore, it will become possible to embrace technologies such as genetic modification of organisations to facilitate increased production using disease and pest-resistant seeds and seedlings. Where IP rights restrict accessibility to alternative technologies for increasing crop yields, it is important for nations to consider developing policies that create a room for purchasing such rights so that more technology can become available to the public. This way, people can increase food production from the current land acreage across the globe. They will increase the frequency of cropping through the utilisation of crops that have a lower maturity time.
Borlaug, N & Dowswell, C 2008, ‘Feeding a World of One Billion People: A 21 st Century Challenge’, Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics , vol. 15 no. 6 , pp. 3-23. Web.
FAO 2003, World agriculture: towards 2015/2020: FAO perspective , FAO, Rome, Italy. Web.
Radimer, K 2002, ‘Measurement of household food security in the USA and other industrialised countries’, Public Health Nutrition , vol. 5 no. 3, pp. 859-864. Web.
IvyPanda. (2020, May 25). Food Security and Growing Population. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-security-and-growing-population/
"Food Security and Growing Population." IvyPanda , 25 May 2020, ivypanda.com/essays/food-security-and-growing-population/.
IvyPanda . (2020) 'Food Security and Growing Population'. 25 May.
IvyPanda . 2020. "Food Security and Growing Population." May 25, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-security-and-growing-population/.
1. IvyPanda . "Food Security and Growing Population." May 25, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-security-and-growing-population/.
Bibliography
IvyPanda . "Food Security and Growing Population." May 25, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-security-and-growing-population/.
IvyPanda uses cookies and similar technologies to enhance your experience, enabling functionalities such as:
Please refer to IvyPanda's Cookies Policy and Privacy Policy for detailed information.
Certain technologies we use are essential for critical functions such as security and site integrity, account authentication, security and privacy preferences, internal site usage and maintenance data, and ensuring the site operates correctly for browsing and transactions.
Cookies and similar technologies are used to enhance your experience by:
Some functions, such as personalized recommendations, account preferences, or localization, may not work correctly without these technologies. For more details, please refer to IvyPanda's Cookies Policy .
To enable personalized advertising (such as interest-based ads), we may share your data with our marketing and advertising partners using cookies and other technologies. These partners may have their own information collected about you. Turning off the personalized advertising setting won't stop you from seeing IvyPanda ads, but it may make the ads you see less relevant or more repetitive.
Personalized advertising may be considered a "sale" or "sharing" of the information under California and other state privacy laws, and you may have the right to opt out. Turning off personalized advertising allows you to exercise your right to opt out. Learn more in IvyPanda's Cookies Policy and Privacy Policy .
Follow Us :
New Delhi: India is seeking to integrate scalable food security interventions into existing government programmes while promoting local crop varieties, a top government official said on Thursday.
Agriculture Secretary Devesh Chaturvedi outlined these priorities during a review of the implementation of the United Nations World Food Programme's (WFP) country strategic plan (CSP) for India spanning 2023-2027.
Chaturvedi, who chaired the first meeting of the Country Programme Advisory Committee (CPAC) under the new CSP, suggested the officers to "identify the scalable interventions and initiatives and prepare mechanisms for including the same in ongoing programmes of ministries/departments." The secretary called for a dedicated workshop to discuss the agriculture sector initiatives in detail, highlighting the need for a focused approach, an official statement said.
Chaturvedi emphasized promoting nutritious local varieties of rice and millets alongside fortified cereals, signalling a shift towards indigenous crop promotion.
He advised exploring the possibilities of bringing the Farmer Producer Organizations (FPO) into different initiatives.
The secretary also emphasised that while accessing the nutritional outcomes of the programmes "we should also look at the standards on nutrition applicable for the Indian population." The committee, comprising joint secretaries from various ministries and NITI Aayog representatives, is tasked with coordinating and reviewing progress on initiatives outlined in the strategic plan.
The CSP, underpinned by a Memorandum of Understanding between India's agriculture ministry and UN-WFP, focuses on four key outcomes: enhancing food-based social protection systems, promoting diverse and nutritious diets, empowering women financially, and building climate-resilient food systems.
WFP Country Director Elizabeth Faure briefed the committee on ongoing initiatives, including efforts to boost food security for smallholder farmers in Assam, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh, and the nationwide push to bring millets in mainstream.
The meeting saw participation from various ministries, including Food & Public Distribution, Women and Child Development, and Rural Development, as well as agencies like the National Disaster Management Authority and India Meteorological Department.
India, the world's most populous country, faces significant challenges in ensuring food security for its 1.4 billion people.
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Defining Food Security: A Multidimensional Perspective. Food security defined many times by various organizations and researchers but the most common definition of food security introduced by FAO (1996) is "Food security, at the individual, household, national, regional and global levels [is achieved] when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and ...
The global food security challenge is straightforward: by 2050, the world must feed two billion more people, an increase of a quarter from today's global population. The demand for food will be 56% greater than it was in 2010. The United Nations has set ending hunger, achieving food security and improved nutrition, and promoting sustainable ...
Food security stands on four pillars: availability, access, utilization, and stability. Availability means there is enough food for everyone. This is like having enough seats for every student in a classroom. Access means people can get the food they need. It's like being able to reach the top shelf where the food is kept.
Introduction. Food is one of the fundamental needs of human. Food security is the ability to access food by those who need it. Every household is termed as secured food wise if it has access to safe and enough food hence freedom from hunger. The World Food Organization describes this security as access to nutritious, safe and sufficient food to ...
Food security can be easily defined as enough food is available at the community or household level, national and global level. Food security is based on four (pillars; availability, accessibility ...
Based on the 1996 World Food Summit, food security is defined when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.. The four main dimensions of food security: Physical availability of food: Food availability addresses the "supply side" of food security and ...
The Meaning of Food Security. Food security may refer to the sufficient accessibility of nutritious, safe, and religiously and culturally appropriate food to all the people across the world. Food security may also depict a situation whereby all communities of the world, regardless of their ethnic backgrounds, religious beliefs, political ...
19 essay samples found. Food Security is the condition where all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food. Essays might explore the strategies to achieve food security, challenges like climate change or political instability hindering food security, and the roles of individuals ...
reflect popular progressive thinking [13]: " Food and nutrition security exists when all people at all times have physical, social and. economic access to food, which is safe and consumed in ...
The number of people suffering acute food insecurity increased from 135 million in 2019 to 345 million in 82 countries by June 2022, as the war in Ukraine, supply chain disruptions, and the continued economic fallout of the COVID-19 pandemic pushed food prices to all-time highs. Global food insecurity had already been rising, due in large part ...
People experiencing food insecurity are more likely to suffer from chronic conditions such as diabetes, blood pressure problems, anemia, and similar issues (Compromises and Coping Strategies para. 5). Without enough energy and health, they cannot improve their life quality. Example, Narrative, or Testimony: Quality food is an essential ...
Food security is best considered as a causal, linked pathway from production to consumption, through distribution to processing, recognized in a number of domains, rather than as four "pillars
The challenge of food security requires an ability to deal with increasing food shortages for an ever expanding world population. With a predicted increase of 1.7 billion in world population between now and 2050, mankind is placing more and more pressure on the shrinking finite resources used to produce our food.
Overview. Food Security is an interdisciplinary journal addressing the global challenges and constraints to achieving food security. Takes a comprehensive view of food security, covering production, stability, access, stocks, markets, trade, and nutritional value. Address the physical, biological and socio-economic constraints that limit food ...
The term "food security" is widely used in publications, articles, statements, the media, etc. Yet, the meaning one gives to it varies considerably: for many, ... Looking at the future of food security, the papers reviews the possibilities to improve existing tools and facilities, reduce contradictions, get people more ...
1. Introduction. Food security (FS) is "a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life" [] p.3.It is a significant priority for international policy [], and has been perceived as being among the key challenges worldwide ...
Essay on Food Security. According to FAO, "Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food for a healthy and active life.". This involves four dimensions: i. Adequacy of food supply or availability;
The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World is an annual flagship report to inform on progress towards ending hunger, achieving food security and improving nutrition and to provide in-depth analysis on key challenges for achieving this goal in the context of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable. Conference Room 2, UNHQ in New York.
In the next 40 years, it is predicted to rise to 9 billion or more. With the emerging challenges of climatic change and reduced agricultural production across the globe, the challenge remains on how to feed a population of 9 billion or more people adequately. Get a custom essay on Food Security and Growing Population. 191 writers online.
Food Security as Defined by the World. Pages: 3 Words: 870. Food Security as defined by the World Food Summit is "when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life" (1). Food security and preservation is a very contentious issue among many nations.
Essay about The Global Food Security Crisis. In 2008 the United Nations declared a global food security crisis, but what exactly is food security? According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, food security "exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and ...
ElianaJean,PASchoolforExcellenceintheAgSciences, TheBaldwinSchool,BrynMawr,PA Egypt,2:WaterScarcity Aquaponics:TheFutureofSustainableAgriculture
Essay On Food Security. 1362 Words6 Pages. INTRODUCTION. Food security refers to the access by all people at all times to adequate self and nutritious food for healthy and productive life. Food security is related to supply of food and individual access to it. It is defined as including both physical and economic access to food that meets ...
New Delhi: India is seeking to integrate scalable food security interventions into existing government programmes while promoting local crop varieties, a top government official said on Thursday ...
Experts have emphasised the need for a well-defined financing model and increased mechanisation to ensure food security in Nigeria and across Africa. The call was made during the recently ...