role of perception critical thinking

Perception and Critical Thinking: 2 Thinking Influences

The process of forming judgments and opinions involves using evidence and logic, which are common to both perception and critical thinking. Perception is the way we interpret information received through our senses from the environment, while critical thinking involves analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information from different sources. Perception can affect critical thinking by influencing the way we select, organize, and interpret the information that we encounter.

Sanju Pradeepa

You rely on your senses and brain to perceive and make sense of the world around you, but how often do you stop to consider how your own perceptions and thought processes actually work? Understanding your these abilities is vital to navigating life effectively. How you perceive and think critically about information directly impacts the choices you make, the relationships you have, and your overall well-being and success.

This article will explore how your senses, experiences, beliefs, and biases shape your perception of reality. You’ll gain insights into common thinking traps and logical fallacies that often distort your reasoning. And you’ll pick up practical techniques for sharpening your critical thinking through questioning assumptions, evaluating evidence objectively, and considering alternative perspectives.

Perception and critical thinking are life skills that require continuous development and practice. Make the effort to understand them, and you’ll be rewarded with a more accurate view of the world, better decision-making, and a deeper understanding of all areas of your life.

Table of Contents

What is perception.

Perception refers to how you interpret the world around you through your senses. How you perceive things depends a lot on your beliefs , experiences, culture, values, preferences, and biases. In other words, perception is subjective and shaped by many factors.

Your senses—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch—are how you receive and process information from the environment. However, your senses alone don’t determine how you perceive things. Your brain also relies on context, memory, and expectations to interpret the information it receives.

For example, if you hear a loud bang in the middle of the night, you may perceive it as threatening because you expect the nighttime environment to be quiet and safe. The same loud bang during the day likely wouldn’t alarm you. Your perception depends heavily on the context.

Your perceptions can also be influenced by your beliefs and biases. For instance, if you believe a certain group of people tend to be untrustworthy , you may perceive individuals from that group in a more negative light, even if there is no objective evidence to support that view.

In summary, perception is a complex process. The world around us is filled with an infinite amount of information, so we tend to organize and interpret it subjectively based on what matters most to us. Understanding how perception works can help us gain insight into ourselves and others. It may also help us become aware of our biases so we can perceive things more openly and accurately.

Is Perception Subjective OR Objective: The Debate Continues

Factors that influence our perception.

The way we perceive the world around us is influenced by many factors. Our past experiences, biases, culture, beliefs, and environment all shape how we interpret information and events.

Past experiences

What we’ve gone through in life impacts how we see new things. If something reminds us of a past painful experience, we may perceive it more negatively. Positive associations from the past can make us view something in a more favorable light. Our experiences cause us to develop expectations about the world, which then influence our perceptions.

Biases and prejudices

The preconceptions and prejudices we hold sway how we perceive people and situations. Confirmation bias leads us to notice and accept information that confirms what we already believe while ignoring anything that contradicts our views. Stereotyping causes us to perceive people as having certain attributes based only on their social group. These prejudices distort our perceptions and make it hard to see things objectively.

Cultural influences

The culture we live in shapes our beliefs and behaviors, which then impact how we perceive the world. Those from individualistic cultures may focus more on personal goals and independence, while those from collectivistic cultures emphasize community and relationships. Our cultural values and norms provide a lens through which we interpret everything around us.

With awareness of these factors, we can work to expand our perspectives and improve our critical thinking skills. Examining our assumptions and the effects of our biases helps us perceive things more openly and objectively. Broadening our experiences and exposing ourselves to diverse cultures and ideas also helps create a more balanced view of the world.

How Our Perceptions Shape Our Reality

Our perceptions shape how we view and interpret the world around us. The way we perceive reality depends on several factors:

• Our beliefs and expectations: We tend to perceive what we already believe or expect to see. For example, if you believe that spiders are dangerous, you are more likely to perceive a spider you encounter as threatening, even if it’s harmless.
• Our biases and prejudices: The biases and stereotypes we hold can distort our perception of people and events. For instance, if you have a prejudice against a particular group, you may perceive members of that group in an unfairly negative light.
• Our emotional state: How we feel can influence what we perceive. When we’re fearful or anxious, we may perceive threats that aren’t actually there. When we’re happy, the world may seem brighter and more positive.
• Our senses—what we see, hear, smell, touch, and taste—provide the raw data for our perceptions. If one of our senses is impaired or limited, it can alter our perception of reality. For example, a blind or deaf person will have a very different perception of the world than a person with full sensory ability.

In summary, our perceptions are shaped by many psychological and sensory factors. We must be aware of how these influences can distort our view of reality and affect our critical thinking and judgment. By recognizing our own biases and limitations, we can gain a more accurate perception of the world and make better decisions.

Motivated Perception: Why We See What We Want to See

Common perceptual distortions and biases.

Our perception of the world around us is shaped by many factors, including some common biases and distortions. Be aware of these tendencies in yourself and others to improve critical thinking.

Confirmation bias

We tend to search for and favor information that confirms what we already believe. Make an effort to also seek out information that contradicts your preexisting views. Consider other perspectives with an open mind.

Anchoring bias

We rely too heavily on the first piece of information we receive, known as the “anchor,” and fail to sufficiently adjust our views in light of subsequent information. Be willing to consider each new piece of information objectively rather than comparing it only to your anchor.

Dunning-Kruger effect

When we lack knowledge or expertise in a particular area, we tend to overestimate our own competence. The less you know, the less aware you are of how much you have yet to learn. Seek out opportunities to expand your knowledge through reading, taking a course, or finding a mentor.

Bandwagon effect

We tend to believe or do things simply because others do. Resist the urge to go along with popular opinion or bandwagons,” and instead evaluate the facts and your own views objectively. Just because “everyone else” believes something does not necessarily make it true.

What Causes Cognitive Distortions: 8 Distortions Behind Them

Being aware of common biases and perceptual distortions is an important step toward improving your critical thinking. Make an effort to consider information objectively, seek out alternative perspectives, and base your judgments on facts rather than preconceptions. With practice, you can overcome these tendencies and develop sharper, more independent thinking.

Critical Thinking Skills: What Are They?

Critical thinking skills are vital in all areas of life. They allow you to analyze information objectively and form your own evaluations and interpretations. Some key critical thinking skills include:

• Observation: Paying close attention to details and gathering information through the senses Observe the world around you and notice subtle details.
• Analysis: Examining information or arguments in a logical, systematic way Break down information into parts to understand it fully. Look for evidence, logical flaws or weaknesses, and alternative interpretations.
• Interpretation: Giving meaning to observations, experiences, information, or arguments Try to understand the significance of the information and how it relates to the overall topic or issue.
• Inference: Drawing conclusions based on observations and analysis Make educated guesses about implications, consequences, outcomes, or the meaning of incomplete information. Inferring allows you to make predictions.
• Evaluation: Assessing the credibility, accuracy, and value of information, arguments, or methods Determine strengths and weaknesses, look for bias, and consider alternative perspectives. Evaluate the evidence and arguments objectively.
• Explanation: Providing a clear and coherent rationale or justification for an argument, conclusion, or outcome Explain your reasoning and thinking process to others in a logical, step-by-step manner.
• Problem-solving : Using critical thinking skills to solve complex problems in a systematic, logical way Identify the problem, gather information, evaluate options, and determine the best solution based on the available evidence. Consider obstacles and their ethical implications.

Developing strong critical thinking skills takes practice. Challenge yourself to think critically about information and arguments, ask probing questions, consider alternative perspectives, and avoid biases and logical fallacies. With regular practice, critical thinking can become second nature.

7 Types of Critical Thinking: A Guide to Analyzing Problems

The order to form a judgement through critical thinking.

Critical thinking is the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment. It is a crucial skill that allows you to think clearly and rationally about what to believe or what to do. Developing your critical thinking skills takes effort and practice.

1. Identify your biases and assumptions.

We all have implicit biases and make assumptions that can influence our thinking. Try to identify your biases and assumptions about the issue. Think about how they might impact your judgment. Try to put them aside and be open-minded.

2. Gather relevant information.

Do some research to determine the facts and evidence related to the issue. Look at a variety of reputable sources to get a full, objective understanding of the issue. Consider alternative perspectives and opinions, not just the ones you already agree with.

3. Evaluate the arguments and evidence.

Once you have information from multiple sources, evaluate the quality of the evidence and arguments. Determine if there are any logical flaws or weaknesses. Look for facts and evidence that contradict or challenge your beliefs. Try to stay objective and rational, not emotional .

4 . Draw a reasoned conclusion.

After evaluating the evidence and arguments, you can draw a logical, well-reasoned conclusion. Your conclusion should be based on factual evidence, not just your preexisting opinions or biases. Be willing to accept a conclusion that differs from what you originally believed.

Critical thinking is a vital skill that takes conscious effort to develop and apply. But with regular practice, you can strengthen your ability to think clearly and logically, even about complex and controversial issues. Applying critical thinking leads to better decision-making and helps create a more just, equitable, and progressive society.

Critical Thinking and Non-Critical Thinking: Key Differences

The relationship between perception and critical thinking.

They are deeply intertwined. How you perceive the world around you shapes your thinking, and your thinking influences what you perceive. Understanding this relationship allows you to strengthen both skills.

Your perceptions are formed by experiences, beliefs, values, biases, and logical reasoning. The more self-aware you are of what influences your perceptions, the better able you are to evaluate them critically. Some techniques that can help include:

• Check for evidence that confirms and disproves your perceptions. Weigh them objectively.
• Look for alternative explanations and interpretations. Don’t assume your initial perception is the only one.
• Consider the context and circumstances surrounding your perceptions. Are there factors that could be distorting your views?
• Examine if there are any personal biases or preconceptions affecting your perceptions. Work to overcome them.
• Ask probing questions to evaluate the accuracy and validity of your perceptions. Look at the issue from multiple angles.
• Discuss your perceptions with others to gain new insights. Be open to learning from different viewpoints.
• Practice empathy by trying to perceive situations from other perspectives than your own. Put yourself in other people’s shoes.

Critical thinking involves analyzing, interpreting, evaluating, and improving your thinking. When you apply critical thinking to your perceptions, you strengthen both skills in a virtuous cycle. Your perceptions become sharper and keener, feeding your critical thinking.

And your critical thinking helps shape perceptions that are more discerning and insightful. Together, perception and critical thinking are powerful combinations for understanding yourself and the world around you.

The Synergy of Perception and Critical Thinking in Personal Development

To develop yourself personally and professionally , improving both your skills are key. These cognitive abilities work together synergistically to help you gain valuable insights and make better judgments.

Perception refers to how you observe and understand the world around you through your senses. It involves noticing details, interpreting what you see and hear, and understanding the context. The more perceptive you are, the better you can assess situations accurately. Some ways to strengthen your perception include:

• Paying close attention to details and your surroundings. Notice subtle cues like body language, tone of voice , and small changes in your environment.
• Avoiding distractions and being fully present in the moment Give people and tasks your full focus.
• Looking at situations from multiple perspectives. Try to understand other points of view, not just your own.

Critical thinking means analyzing information objectively and making reasoned judgments. It enables you to evaluate arguments and ideas in a logical, unbiased way. To improve your critical thinking:

• Question assumptions and opinions. Consider the evidence and facts, not just beliefs.
• Look for logical flaws and biases. Watch out for emotional appeals, ad hominem attacks, and close-minded thinking.
• Consider alternative explanations and solutions. Don’t just accept the most obvious answer. Look for creative options.

By honing your perception and critical thinking, you can gain a more accurate understanding of yourself and the world. You’ll make wiser choices and decisions, build better relationships, and continue learning and developing new skills. Keep practicing, and these cognitive abilities will become second nature.

How Critical Thinking Complements and Enhances Perception

Critical thinking is the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue or situation to form a judgment. It complements perception, our sensory experience of the world around us, by enabling us to logically analyze the information we receive through our senses. Together, perception and critical thinking allow us to make sense of the world in an insightful, pragmatic way.

Some key ways critical thinking enhances perception include :

• Evaluating evidence . We perceive a lot of information, but critical thinking helps us determine what evidence is most relevant and credible. We can assess the accuracy, reliability, and validity of what we perceive.
• Identifying assumptions . Our perceptions are influenced by our assumptions, biases, and preconceptions. Critical thinking helps us recognize and evaluate these assumptions to gain a more balanced perspective.
• Considering alternative interpretation s It’s easy to accept what we perceive at face value, but critical thinking pushes us to consider other ways of understanding the information. We can generate alternative hypotheses and explanations.
• Applying logical reasoning While perception relies on our senses, critical thinking relies on logic and reasoning. We can apply logical principles like deduction and induction to draw well-reasoned conclusions from what we perceive.
• Questioning and reflecting Critical thinking fosters an inquisitive mindset. We learn to habitually question and reflect on our perceptions, asking probing questions to gain deeper insight and understanding. Questioning and reflecting lead to a more thoughtful perspective.
• Gaining a broader perspective It helps us consider the wider context surrounding what we perceive. We can incorporate different points of view and relate new information to a broader framework of knowledge. This results in a balanced, well-informed perspective.

In summary, critical thinking and perception work together to shape how we understand ourselves and the world. Our senses may perceive, but our minds must think critically about that perception to gain wisdom. Critical thinking turns the raw materials of perception into knowledge and insight.

Building Resilience and Emotional Intelligence through Perception and Critical Thinking

To build resilience and emotional intelligence, it’s important to understand how perception and critical thinking work. Our perceptions are shaped by many factors, including:

• Our beliefs and experiences: What we already believe or have experienced can shape what we perceive in the present.
• Emotions: Feeling anxious, afraid, or upset can influence what we perceive and how we think about it.
• Biases: We all have implicit biases that can distort our perceptions and judgments.
• Selective attention: We can’t possibly take in all the information around us, so we selectively attend to certain details while ignoring others.

Developing strong critical thinking skills helps overcome the limitations and distortions in our perceptions. Some tips for improving your critical thinking include:

• Consider alternative perspectives. Try to understand how others may perceive the same situation differently. Ask open-ended questions to gain new insights. Seek out balanced and objective analyses of issues.
• Evaluate the evidence and arguments. Look for logical flaws, false assumptions, and inconsistencies. Consider the credibility and possible biases of the sources. Try to determine the accuracy and relevance of key facts.
• Challenge your own beliefs and assumptions. We often don’t recognize our own biases and preconceptions. Make the effort to question why you believe what you believe and look for evidence that contradicts your views. Remain open to other ways of thinking.
• Draw reasonable conclusions. Avoid making hasty generalizations or interpretations that are not well supported by evidence. Consider alternative explanations and hypotheses. Make sure your conclusions logically follow from the evidence and arguments.

Building perception and critical thinking skills is a lifelong endeavor, but one that is essential for success and well-being. With regular practice, these cognitive abilities can become habits of an intelligent and thoughtful mind.

Types of Resilience: Building Strength for Life’s Challenges

The impact of perception and critical thinking on relationships.

They have a significant impact on your relationships. How you perceive yourself and others, as well as your ability to think critically about social interactions, determines the quality and depth of your connections.

Self-Perception

The way you view yourself directly influences how you engage in relationships. If you have a negative self-image , you may come across as insecure, jealous, or needy to others. Work to develop a balanced and compassionate view of yourself. Learn to appreciate your own strengths, values, and accomplishments. When you feel good about who you are, you can build mutually supportive relationships based on trust and understanding.

Perception of Others

How you perceive people also shapes your relationships. If you make overly critical judgments about others or generalize their behaviors, you may miss opportunities to connect. Try to see others with an open and curious mind. Look for their positive qualities and the humanity you share. Ask clarifying questions instead of making assumptions. With a more generous perception of people, you can build healthier and happier relationships .

Critical Thinking

Your ability to think critically about social interactions impacts relationships too. Strong critical thinking skills allow you to better understand complex relationship dynamics, set appropriate boundaries, and resolve conflicts in constructive ways. Examine the reasons behind others’ behaviors before reacting. Look for compromise and common ground. Consider each person’s perspective, needs, and concerns. When you can think critically about your relationships, you are able to navigate challenges in a thoughtful, principled manner.

In summary, developing a balanced self-perception, an openness towards others, and strong critical thinking skills allows you to create and sustain meaningful connections with people. Focusing on these areas can help transform your relationships in positive ways.

Practical Strategies for Applying Perception and Critical Thinking in Daily Life

To apply these two skills in your daily life, here are some practical strategies:

Examine your biases.

We all have implicit biases that influence our perceptions and judgments. Make an effort to recognize your own biases and preconceptions about people and situations. Ask yourself how they might be impacting your thinking and be open to challenging them.

Seek out different perspectives.

Try exposing yourself to different opinions, cultures, and ways of thinking. Read news sources you disagree with, follow people on social media with different views, and engage in respectful debates with others. Widening your perspectives will make you a more perceptive and open-minded thinker.

Question assumptions

Don’t just accept information at face value. Ask questions like, What evidence supports this? What are the counterarguments? Are there any hidden assumptions or biases? Evaluating the reasoning and evidence behind claims and ideas will lead to improved critical thinking.

Consider context

Perception depends strongly on context. Try to understand people and events in the broader context of the situation and environment. Look for root causes and connections, not just surface appearances. Context provides meaning and helps avoid narrow or superficial judgments.

Stay curious

Cultivate a curious mindset. Ask questions, explore new topics that spark your interest, and seek to continuously expand your knowledge. Curious people tend to be more perceptive, open-minded , and willing to challenge their own thinking. A curious mind is a critical mind.

Think before reacting.

Take time to reflect on situations rather than just reacting impulsively. Try to tap into your ability to reason and evaluate before responding or passing judgment. Pausing to think leads to more perceptive responses and helps avoid rash or emotional reactions. With practice, critical thinking can become second nature.

As you have seen, perception and critical thinking are intertwined. How you perceive the world around you is shaped by your beliefs, experiences, assumptions, and biases. To develop strong critical thinking skills, you must continually challenge your perceptions and consider alternative perspectives. Notice when information confirms what you already believe and look for evidence that contradicts your views. Seek out opinions different from your own and try to understand other points of view.

Continually ask questions about the accuracy and validity of the information. The more you practice perceiving the world with an open and curious mind, the stronger your critical thinking abilities will become. Sharpening these skills takes deliberate effort but will serve you well in navigating an increasingly complex world.

• Stereotype From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
• Perception Is Not Reality – Just because you think something is reality doesn’t make it reality. Posted August 5, 2019 |   Reviewed by Lybi Ma

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The five senses and the nature of perception, perceiving the world looks, sounds, and feels easy. it isn't..

Posted November 11, 2014 | Reviewed by Jessica Schrader

We perceive the world through our five senses—our eyes, ears, skin, nose, and mouth are all receptors. Everything that comes into the brain enters through one of these doors. Because most of us take the world in through our senses effortlessly, we don’t give much thought or attention to how we do this.

Even scientists were guilty of underappreciating the complexity of the senses. Back in the 1950s and 1960s, when computers were in their infancy, the thinking was that it would take a decade or so to build “perceiving machines” that could respond to sight, sound, touch and so on as well as a human being. Such a machine still doesn’t exist.

Lose a sense, however, and you will quickly appreciate what is missing. I know because that’s what happened to me when I found out my son was deaf. There was so much to learn about the way hearing works and the role of sound in the brain that I wrote a whole book about it. That was the long version.

This is the short version. What has to happen to put on the show that is our awareness of our environment? An awful lot. Neuroscientists have recently done some radical rethinking about the very nature of perception .

“Historically, the way we intuitively think about all perception is that we’re like a passive recording device with detectors that are specialized for certain things, like a retina for seeing, a cochlea for hearing, and so forth,” says David Poeppel , a professor of psychology and neural science at New York University and a director of the newly established Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics . “We’re kind of a camera or microphone that gets encoded somehow and then magically makes contact with the stuff in your head.”

At the same time, many of the big thinkers who pondered perception, as far back as the 19th-century German physician Hermann von Helmholtz, knew that couldn’t be quite right. If we reached for a glass or listened to a sentence, didn’t it help to be able to anticipate what might come next?

In the mid-to-late 20th century, a handful of prominent researchers proposed models of perception that suggested that we engaged in “active sensing,” seeking out what was possible as we went along. Such ideas didn’t gain much traction until the past decade, when they suddenly became a hot topic in the study of cognition . What everyone is talking about today is the brain’s power of prediction.

On one level, prediction is just common sense, which may be one reason it didn’t get much scientific respect for so long. If you see your doctor in the doctor’s office, you recognize her quickly. If you see her in the grocery store dressed in jeans, you’ll be slower to realize you know her.

Predictable events are easy for the brain; unpredictable events require more effort. “Our expectations for what we’re going to perceive seem to be a critical part of the process,” says Greg Hickok , a neuroscientist at the University of California, Irvine. “It allows the system to make guesses as to what it might be seeing and to use computational shortcuts.”

In the old view of perception, a cascade of responses flows from the ear or the eye through the brain and ends with the ability to follow a complicated sentence or pick out the one person you are looking for in a crowded theater. That is known as bottom-up processing. It starts with basic input to any sense—raw data—and ends with such higher-level skills as reasoning and judgment and critical thinking—in other words, our expectations and knowledge.

But that is only half the story. Neuroscientists now believe that the process is also happening in reverse, that the cascade flows both ways, with information being prepared, treated, and converted in both directions simultaneously, from the bottom up and the top down.

This holds for simple responses as well as for complex thinking about philosophy or physics. If a sound is uncomfortably loud, for instance, it is the cortex that registers that fact and sends a message all the way back to the cochlea to stiffen hair cells as a protective measure. The same is true of the retina, adjusting for the amount of light available. It’s not your eye or ear doing that, it’s your brain.

Imagine someone beating rhythmically on a table with a pencil: tap, tap, tap, tap. By the third beat, you have anticipated the timing. By the fourth, scientists like Poeppel and Hickok could see activity in the brain that represents that prediction.

Perception then is an active process of constructing a reality, a conversation between the senses and the cortex that balances new information from the outside world with predictions from the interior world of our brain.

Parts of this post originally appeared in I Can Hear You Whisper: An Intimate Journey through the Science of Sound and Language (Dutton 2014).

Lydia Denworth is a science journalist and author of Friendship: The Evolution, Biology, and Extraordinary Power of Life’s Fundamental Bond.

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Sharpen Your Mind: Perception and Critical Thinking Skills

• Post author: Hayden J Williams
• Post published: May 12, 2024
• Post category: Thinking

In our complex world of limitless information and infinite choices, two skills reign supreme: perceiving reality accurately and thinking critically. Do you truly see the world clearly, unbiased by personal filters? Can you navigate the endless data stream, separating truth from manipulation? This guide empowers you to pierce through the noise. Learn strategies to hone your perception and fortify your critical thinking. From navigating complex work decisions to choosing the perfect movie night pick, mastering these skills elevates every choice you make.

Table of Contents

Understanding Perception 

What is perception

Perception is how we interpret and make sense of the world around us through our senses. It involves selecting, organizing, and assigning meaning to the information we take in.

The key components of perception are:

• Sensory input – what we see, hear, smell, taste, and feel
• Attention – what sensory information we choose to focus on
• Interpretation – how we make sense of and assign meaning to that sensory information
• Memory – how past experiences shape our perception of present sensations

Our perception acts as a lens – shaping how we view reality. Understanding its components is vital for recognizing biases that distort our perceptions

What is the relationship between perception and critical thinking? Perception shapes how we interpret information, while critical thinking guides our analysis and decision-making based on that interpretation.

Perception biases

These are mental blindspots that distort our judgment and decision-making. Here are some common examples

• Confirmation bias – We favor information that confirms our existing beliefs and ignore contradictory data. Ex: Only reading news sources that align with your political views.
• Anchoring bias – We tend to place excessive importance on the initial information we receive. Ex: Estimating a home’s or car’s value based solely on the listing price.
• Availability heuristic – We overestimate the importance of information that is more easily retrievable in memory. Ex: believing crime is rampant after hearing about a few high-profile cases.
• Framing effect – Our choices are influenced by how information is presented rather than the facts themselves. Ex: Saying “90% lean beef” sounds healthier than “10% fat.”
• Halo effect – Our perception of someone is shaped by one trait like attractiveness or confidence. Ex: Viewing someone as smarter just because they are attractive.
• In-Group Bias – We tend to favor our own group (based on things like ethnicity, age, religion, profession, etc.) over others. This can lead to discrimination, tribalism, and an inability to see different perspectives objectively. In-group bias is a key driver of prejudice. Ex: Such as favoring colleagues from the same department over those from other departments at work

Identifying these mental blindspots is key to counteract them and improve perception accuracy.

Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills 

Importance of Critical thinking

Critical thinking is the skill of carefully analyzing information and making good decisions. These abilities are extremely important in all areas of life.

In school, strong critical thinking helps students understand different viewpoints, spot flaws in reasoning, and back up their opinions.

At work, employees who can think critically look at problems from every angle, consider evidence fairly, and make smart decisions that move the business forward.

In our personal lives, applied critical thinking stops us from jumping to conclusions, lets us separate facts from lies, and leads to wiser choices as voters, buyers, and in our relationships.

Enhancing your critical thinking abilities means you’ll be better equipped to handle tough challenges at work, navigate tricky ethical situations, and recognize flawed reasoning. This improvement leads to making wiser decisions and achieving more successful outcomes in whatever you do.

Common Pitfalls due to perception biases

Perception biases lead to flawed thinking across various situations. Let is analyze how these happen

1. Confirmation Bias : Imagine a student convinced they’ll ace a history test.  They focus only on confirming evidence (past successes, good grades) and ignore disconfirming evidence (forgotten dates, areas for improvement).  This closed-mindedness hinders a well-rounded review and critical preparation for the test.

2. Anchoring Bias :  During salary negotiations, the employer throws out a low number first. Anchoring bias makes you fixate on the initial offer as a reference point , potentially accepting a lower offer than your worth, even if it’s below market value.

3. Availability Bias:   Hearing constant news stories about car accidents might make you believe driving is more dangerous than it statistically is. This skewed perception hinders a balanced evaluation of transportation risks because you judge likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind (dramatic news stories) instead of considering overall statistics.

4. Self-Serving Bias:   After a bad presentation, you might blame technical difficulties instead of acknowledging a lack of practice. This prevents you from learning from mistakes and improving your critical thinking for future presentations.  Self-serving bias hinders critical thinking because it prevents you from objectively evaluating your own role in the outcome .

Strategies for improving critical thinking abilities

No matter the context, questioning assumptions is key.  Get in the habit of asking “Why?” and playing devil’s advocate to consider multiple perspectives before conclusions.

• Before meetings, write down your assumptions about agenda topics
• During meetings, vocalize counterpoints to your stance
• After meetings, list points you may have missed

Example) Imagine you’re a marketing manager for a shoe company. Sales of a new running shoe design are slumping. Instead of just lowering the price (anchoring bias), your team could critically analyze customer reviews, conduct focus groups (empathy), and identify a discomfort issue. This data-driven approach could lead to a redesign that boosts sale

In Academia:

• Focus on understanding underlying concepts rather than just memorizing facts.
• For readings, summarize the core concept in 1-2 sentences first
• Then list out 2-3 reasons why you agree/disagree
• Compare your reasons against the author’s arguments
• Compare contradictory sources.

Example) During the Renaissance, critical thinking flourished. Thinkers like Galileo Galilei challenged prevailing assumptions about the solar system through observation and experimentation.This defiance of confirmation bias led to groundbreaking scientific discoveries.   

For Personal Decisions:

• Consult subject matter experts.
• Use tools like decision matrices.
• Write out goals in the form of questions (e.g. What car suits me best?)
• List criteria important to you and weight them
• Go through pros/cons and re-evaluate weights

Example) Let’s say you’re deciding on a new car: Overcome self-serving bias by researching safety ratings and reliability (data) instead of just focusing on a brand you like (halo effect).

In General:

• Slow down. Don’t jump to judgments based on instinct or first impressions.
• Remain humble – your viewpoint could be distorted by bias.
• Challenge yourself to find holes in your own logic.

The Key: Consistently applying strategies tailored to the situation builds critical thinking as a mindset, not just a skill.

Strategies to Improve Perception 

Meditation with regular practice builds meta-awareness – self observation. This helps to catch the mind’s biases as they occur. At work, take mindful pauses during meetings to notice snap judgments forming about colleagues. Self-question underlying assumptions.

Mindfulness In studies, mindfully read texts. When feeling resistance to an author’s point, explore that knee-jerk reaction objectively. Mindfulness “micro-practices”:

• Do a 2-minute breathing reset between tasks
• When feeling resistant, ask “What am I reacting to?”
• Spot when your internal voice uses absolutes like “never/always”
• Notice when making harsh us/them categorizations

For personal decisions like purchases, mindfully observe how marketers use influences like pricing anchors or framing tricks. Regain rational perspective.

Journaling: Keeping a non-judgmental  journal can boost bias awareness. When you lapse into harsh us/them, halo, or confirmation biases, note it impartially.

Over time, mindful self-observation allows us to recognize distorted perception-making in the moment. With awareness comes the opportunity to rewire those mental blindspots.

Developing empathy and perspective-taking skills for better understanding others’ viewpoints

Empathy is key for counteracting biases that make us judge others unfairly. Actively practicing perspective-taking expands our worldview beyond personal frames.

Questions: Get in the habit of asking others “What led you to that point of view?” Then listen openly, without prejudice, and stay curious to truly grasp their experiences and motivations.

If you cannot ask them, ask yourself what may be the various reasons they act or talk in this manner. These could be past experiences, cultural background, personal beliefs, emotional state, stress levels and time constraints. Observation When making decisions affecting others, conduct empathy interviews or observations to walk in their shoes. Consider how your choices would impact various stakeholders.

Literature Reading fiction builds cognitive empathy by immersing you in characters’ lives. Exploring diverse narratives stretches perspective-taking abilities.

Empathy cultivates the humility to question our personal assumptions. Are we seeing things through an in-group favored lens? By striving to perceive other viewpoints accurately, we reduce judgment errors

Engaging with diverse perspectives to broaden one’s worldview

Surrounding yourself with people who always agree with you creates an echo chamber, breeding insular thinking and biases like in-group favoritism. To truly expand your perception, you need to actively engage with contrasting and different perspectives.

Seek out books, articles, podcasts, and people that challenge your assumptions. Join online forums or local meetup groups focused on discussing different philosophies, cultures, and ideologies. Approach these discussions with an open mind, asking questions to gain a deeper understanding.

In the workplace, build teams with professionals from varied backgrounds to infuse diverse viewpoints. Solicit all members’ inputs equally during decisions. The more you immerse yourself in seeing reality through others’ eyes, the more your own worldview expands. This combats distorted, narrow perceptions that lead to poor judgments.

Integrating Perception and Critical Thinking  

Case studies showcasing the application of perception and critical thinking in various domains

Business : During the Tylenol cyanide crisis, Johnson & Johnson prevented perception biases like denial from clouding their judgment. Critical thinking drove recalling all bottles – putting public safety over profits. This exemplary decision-making protected the brand long-term.

Marketing (Apple’s Think Different Campaign): Apple’s campaign challenged the perception that computers were solely utilitarian tools, instead framing them as instruments of creativity and rebellion. This shift in perception was driven by critical analysis of consumer desires and cultural trends. By tapping into the zeitgeist and challenging conventional wisdom, Apple successfully reshaped consumer perceptions and established itself as a leader in innovation.

Education : Schools using philosophical inquiry build children’s skills in examining personal perception biases through Socratic dialogue. This deeper critical thinking approach enhances rational problem-solving abilities.  

Marketing :Think about the enduring popularity of Coca-Cola. Their marketing campaigns (like the iconic “Share a Coke” campaign)  don’t just focus on the product itself (anchoring bias). They tap into emotions, nostalgia, and a sense of community,  demonstrating a deep understanding of consumer perception. 

Practical exercises for integrating perception and critical thinking 

• Analyzing news articles : This helps perception by identifying biases within articles, such as confirmation bias or framing effects, and evaluating the credibility of sources based on perceived trustworthiness and expertise.
• Role-playing scenarios : Perception plays a role in understanding the perspectives of different characters in the scenario. It requires you to perceive and empathize with varying viewpoints to effectively role-play.
• Debating controversial topics : Perception influences how individuals interpret and perceive arguments presented during debates. It also requires critical analysis of the underlying assumptions and biases inherent in each position.
• Solving puzzles or riddles : Perception is crucial for accurately perceiving patterns, relationships, and clues within puzzles or riddles. It helps to critically assess information and use perceptual skills to arrive at solutions.
• Conducting experiments or simulations : Perception is involved in observing and interpreting data collected during experiments or simulations. You need to critically analyze findings and draw evidence-based conclusions.
• Challenge Your Gut : Before acting, question your first instinct. Ask “Why?” and consider alternative viewpoints. That challenges perceptual biases and prompts critical evaluation of initial reactions.
• Seek Diverse Input : Talk to people with different backgrounds and perspectives. Read articles with opposing viewpoints to broaden perception and foster critical thinking through exposure to diverse opinions.
• Play Devil’s Advocate : Actively argue against your initial decision to identify potential flaws and biases. This will encourage critical examination of assumptions and promote a balanced perspective.
• List Pros & Cons : Objectively weigh the positive and negative aspects of each option, using data and evidence to overcome perceptual biases and make better decisions.
• Future Consequences : Consider the long-term impact of your choices on yourself and others. That encourages critical evaluation of potential outcomes and forward-thinking decision-making.

Tips for overcoming biases and enhancing rationality in different situations

Develop a Critical Eye:

• Recognize your biases: Understand how they influence your decisions. (e.g., confirmation bias)
• Question assumptions: Challenge your initial thoughts and seek evidence to support them.
• Seek diverse perspectives: Talk to people with different viewpoints to expand your understanding.

Make Informed Choices:

• Consider consequences: Evaluate the potential outcomes of your decisions for all involved.
• Take time: Avoid rushing to judgment. Gather information and reflect before acting.
• Use data: Base your decisions on objective facts and evidence, not emotions.

Test and Refine:

• Test your ideas: Experiment and seek feedback to validate your beliefs.
• Continuous learning: Stay open to new information and be willing to adapt your thinking.
• Tailored Strategies:

Personal Decisions : Separate facts from emotions. Recognize when fear or bias clouds your judgment.

Work : Ask others to critique your reasoning. Pre-write the opposite stance to expose blind spots.

Debates : Don’t cling to existing beliefs. Be curious and open to conflicting information.

Use decision matrices : Systematically weigh options against objective criteria.

Embrace uncertainty : Be comfortable with ambiguity and adjusting your views based on new information.

Question overconfidence : Dogmatism is susceptible to bias.

Mastering critical thinking is a continuous process. By actively questioning your own thinking and tailoring your approach to different situations, you can overcome bias and make more informed, rational decisions.

Benefits of Improved Skills  

Enhanced perception and sharpened critical thinking bring significant benefits in everyday life:

• Problem-Solving: They help you analyze complex issues without bias, making it easier to adapt. For example, when solving a work problem, you consider various solutions instead of sticking to one idea.
• Academics: You learn to question assumptions, evaluate evidence, and make stronger arguments. For instance, when writing a paper, you critically review different theories to support your argument.
• Collaboration: Better perception fosters empathy, making teamwork smoother. For example, during a group project, you actively listen to different viewpoints and incorporate them into the final product.
• Professional Development: Being aware of cognitive biases helps in making better decisions. For example, when planning a project, you identify potential risks and propose alternative approaches.
• Personal Growth: Understanding your biases leads to personal growth. For example, reflecting on past experiences helps you make better choices in relationships.

Final thoughts

Sharpening our perception and critical thinking unlocks immense benefits in all aspects of life. By applying the strategies here, we can challenge biases and see reality more clearly. Through empathy and questioning assumptions , we strengthen critical thinking , leading to better problem-solving , relationships, and overall success .

The Art of Thinking Clearly by Rolf Dobelli

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7.2 Critical Thinking

Imagine someone asked you to share the best way to approach a colleague about a behaviour that is bothering them. What would you say? How did you come to your response? If you asked and someone told you their answer, what would you think or feel about their response? How did you come to the reaction you had to their response? Recalling the role of perception from an earlier chapter, we know that our communication is always shaped by a perspective we hold based on our experiences. What happens when you don’t know the answer or you don’t like the option someone else provided? How do you re-approach the question to come up with a response? When searching for information on how to answer a question, how do we select the best information? Communication competence is achieved by the ability to pay critical attention to how information is being perceived, selected, and communicated by ourselves and others. This is especially challenging in increasingly diverse, complex, and information-filled environments.

So, what are our strategies? In reality, there are many different strategies to critically attend to the messages we send and receive. In this section, we will explore a three-strategy approach: critical listening , critical thinking , and critical ignoring .

In the scenario above in which a co-worker asks you to share the best way to approach a colleague about a behaviour that is bothering them, what would your immediate response be? Your immediate response might be an effective solution, but that’s not what we’re trying to figure out. Whatever your immediate response was, we want to learn to employ strategies to actively seek other possible solutions and explore them in depth. Your immediate response to the question may also indicate your own bias, which is what we want to avoid when choosing and communicating a response. Bias is “an outlook … based on a personal and sometimes unreasoned judgement and/or an instance of such prejudice” (Merriam-Webster, 2023a). Perhaps you consciously recall personal experiences of how you’ve approached co-workers in the past, and your immediate response has been shaped by those experiences. Your response is biased because it is based on personal experience. Sometimes we are consciously aware of our bias when we communicate; however, implicit bias can also exist. Implicit bias is “a bias or prejudice that is present but not consciously held or recognized” (Merriam-Webster, 2023b). Shaping our response according to our experiences is natural and helps us make decisions quickly. At the same time, relying only on our own experiences limits us to the options we already know.

If competent communication is our goal, competent communicators can understand, choose from, and perform a wide range of behaviours (Adler et al., 2021, pp. 16–19). Knowing about conscious and implicit bias, we can start to listen to ourselves and others communicate and possibly become consciously aware. Listening to all communication can help us become more reasoned communicators and allow us to connect better with others as we acknowledge diverse perspectives alongside our own. Bias can turn into reason when more information is gathered, other possible solutions are identified, and all the information is analyzed to determine a reasoned response or action.

Ultimately, using strategies to critically attend to information helps us to do the following:

• Challenge our assumptions
• Avoid information overload
• Avoid the communication of biased or irrelevant information
• Develop an understanding of and empathy for different perspectives
• Explore options to make an informed decision
• Connect with diverse audiences.

Strategy 1: Critical Listening

Many different ways of listening are described in literature. Three listening types are commonly discussed:

• Informational listening
• Comprehensive and evaluative listening
• Empathic listening

Each type of listening serves a different purpose, can be used in isolation or simultaneously, and can help us perceive, select and/or evaluate information to use orally or in writing. Each of the listening styles can be used when attending to external information being given to us and can also serve as an introspective approach to listening to ourselves.

Informational listening involves gathering new information and facts, then identifying key points. This is followed by recording the information so that we can access it later by committing it to memory and/or taking physical notes.

Comprehensive and evaluative listening is a combination of listening styles that does not attempt to decide if information is right or wrong. Instead, this listening style determines the main message the information is trying to send and how similar or different the information is to our existing knowledge and beliefs. It is through this listening style that we decide what we have learned. This process is an active approach that uses the following steps;

• Seeks to understand and organize the information gathered; uses paraphrasing and questioning communication skills
• Seeks to align the new information with what we already know or believe

Empathic listening is an active listening style that seeks to identify and understand the feelings and emotions behind the information being presented. You may ask questions, gently requesting that the speaker discuss their feelings and emotions. You will also use paraphrasing, and seek clarification to help understand whether you have truly heard the other person’s perspective. This listening style helps to create connection and trust between the listener and speaker.

Consider the following scenario: Your workplace team is trying to decide whether cellphones should be banned whenever interactions with clients take place. The discussion has been raised several times and there are many different opinions and perspectives on the question.

When you ask yourself the question, listen to your own reaction and internal communication. When you imagine this discussion taking place with your workplace team, imagine the range of opinions and perspectives. When you imagine yourself doing any kind of research to gather information about the topic, imagine the information you might find.

How would you use each of the listening styles above? Imagine the possible information you might gather from each listening style. Imagine the possible emotions and feelings that may need to be managed. What might be the benefits and challenges from using each listening style?

Gathering information is usually the first step in any situation that requires critically attending to information, but it doesn’t end there, and you may revisit the critical listening strategy at any point in your approach. Nonetheless, after gathering information, you’ll need to do something with it, and there may be a lot of information to sort through. This is where the next two strategies come into play.

Strategy 2: Critical Thinking

The concept of critical thinking does not have a single definition; instead, definitions range from simple to complex but capture a common theme of analyzing information to gain a better understanding.

Here are a few definitions to consider:

• Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action (Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2019).
• For some, critical thinking has a lot to do with understanding one’s own perspective and those of others.
• Critical thinking is the mental process involved in processing information for the purpose of problem solving, decision making, and thinking critically (Drew, 2023).
• Critical thinking is the means of assessing the accuracy, authenticity, plausibility, or sufficiency of all information (Beyer 1995).
• Critical thinking is developing the ability to think in alignment with the original idea or different from the original idea.

Not surprisingly, several critical-thinking models or frameworks are commonly used. Each approaches the process of analyzing and understanding information in a different way and for a different purpose. Some examples of critical-thinking models are listed in the table below.

Table 7.1. Examples of Critical-Thinking Models or Frameworks

Consider the previous scenario where your workplace team is trying to decide whether cellphones should be banned whenever interactions with clients take place. The discussion has been raised several times, and there are many different opinions and perspectives on the question. Choose one or two of the critical-thinking models in the table above to explore and click on the links. Use the steps in each model to answer the question “Should cellphones be banned whenever interactions with clients take place?”

In their own unique way, each model will ask you to gather more information from sources of information such as books, articles, or other people. You will then compare and analyze the information and perspectives you gather, considering possible courses of action and their possible outcomes and impacts. This gathering, sorting, and analyzing of information is essential to making a final decision based on reason instead of personal bias. However, as you may have already felt, the process can be overwhelming if there are a lot of facts, perspectives, and resulting options and consequences. We can understand why personal bias becomes the more attractive and easily accessible option.

Strategy 3: Critical Ignoring

The third and find strategy in moving towards communication competence, critical ignoring , helps us navigate the sea of information and decide what to keep and what to discard. As you consider your own response and that of others to the question “Should cellphones be banned whenever interactions with clients take place?” you may think of some strong opinionated responses that might be communicated or find some compelling evidence for or against the issue when you research the topic. The degree to which you feel overwhelmed by the information indicates your natural capacity for taking in information, and you may have already started to ignore some of the information you have come across.

This means you are already engaging in critical ignoring , which is choosing what to ignore, learning how to resist misleading information, and deciding where to invest your attention (Kozyreva et al., 2023). You may now be asking how critical ignoring is not biased. Critical ignoring is not biased because the choice of what information is ignored is based on assessing the quality of the information and is not based on personal opinions and perspectives. Note that although critical ignoring is designed for online sources of information, it is possible to apply the same approach to human sources of information.

The following three steps are involved in critical ignoring:

• Self-nudging: This is ignoring temptations by removing them. For example, you know that a particular website or social media platform tends to post a lot of information that grabs your attention but isn’t usually helpful because of its lack of objective facts and supporting evidence. You turn off notifications from these sources or remove them. Then you turn your attention to the high-quality sources of information that usually do provide information that stands up to reason. Self-nudging provides a sense of control, enabling you to access the best sources of information in diverse and complex environments.
• Lateral reading: This is determining how trustworthy a source and its information is by investigating the background of the website and author, and by comparing the information across a wide variety of sources. For example, you click on an article with an attention-grabbing title that is connected to a problem you’ve recently been discussing with colleagues. The information sounds excellent and helpful, but how to be sure? Investigating the author of the article reveals that they have credentials and experience related to the topic. A close look at the organization that runs the website reveals that they are selling one of the products mentioned in the article, which casts doubt on the quality of the information. Last but not least, you search for other articles on the same topic, and almost all the articles from different sources agree with the information presented in the original article. You assess the article’s information to be of reasonable quality and forward it to your colleagues to consider. Lateral reading is initially time consuming, but with practice, it can develop into a quick and easy method of investing in the highest-quality information.
• Do not feed the trolls—ignoring malicious actors: This involves learning how to ignore the people who spread misinformation or harass others using multiple platforms, or those who create debate or argument where there is none to be had. Because online statements can be emotionally charged, deliberately personal, or polarizing, we as humans tend to have just as emotional a response, and it is difficult not to react or try to defend the cause or individual being attacked. “Feeding the trolls” by directly engaging with them is tempting but ultimately has the same effect as feeding ourselves a good breakfast—it provides the necessary fuel for growth and regeneration. Instead of feeding the trolls, do not respond directly, block and report them to the platform where they are making statements, and then seek support from your close social group or professionals.

(Kozyreva et al., 2023)

Consider the previous scenario where your workplace team is trying to decide whether cellphones should be banned whenever interactions with clients take place. If you followed the first two steps, critical listening and critical thinking , you now have a lot of information to sort through. There may be many different opinions and perspectives on the question, and perhaps you found a few published articles. Next comes the third and final step, critical ignoring , to narrow down the information that really helps to answer the question.

As you reflect on the information you gather when exploring any topic or question, this three-strategy approach will help you manage the information and come to a reasonable course of action.

Relating Theory to Real Life

• Consider the following questions (Stevenson, 2023) and choose one that you would like to use to work through the three-step critical-thinking strategy you’ve read about on this page:
• Does humanity have the right to colonize other planets?
• Should we aim to rehabilitate prisoners or should we just punish them for their crimes?
• Would public health care be better than private?
• Should more be done to protect children on social media?

2. Use the critical listening, critical thinking, and critical ignoring three-step strategy.

• What response to the original question did you come up with?
• List and describe at least three key points that helped determine your final response as a result of using the three-step strategy.

Attribution

Unless otherwise indicated, material on this page has been copied and adapted from the following resource:

Department of Communication Studies. (n.d.). Communicating to connect: Interpersonal communication for today. Austin Community College. https://sites.google.com/austincc.edu/interpersonaloer/title-page , licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 , except where otherwise noted.

Adler, R. B., Rolls, J. A., & Proctor, R., II. (2021). LOOK: Looking out, looking in (4th ed.). Cengage Canada. (Original work published 2017)

Apedaile, S., & NorQuest College Centre for Intercultural Education. (2015). The Something’s up! cycle . https://www.norquest.ca/NorquestCollege/media/pdf/about/resources/intercultural-resources-for-educators/the-somethings-up-cycle.pdf

Beyer, B. K. (1995).  Critical thinking. Phi Kappa Delta Educational Foundation.

Crockett, L. (2021, September 29). The most useful critical thinking mental models to know about . Future Focused Learning. https://blog.futurefocusedlearning.net/useful-critical-thinking-mental-models

Drew, C. (2023, May 10). The 4 types of critical thinking skills – explained! HelpfulProfessor.com. https://helpfulprofessor.com/thinking-skills/

The Foundation for Critical Thinking. (2019). Defining critical thinking . https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766

Hammond, J., Keeney, R., & Raiffa, H. (1999). Smart choices: PROACT technique . Harvard Business School Press. https://www.canada.ca/en/services/jobs/training/initiatives/skills-success/tools/problem-solved-employees-learners.html#h2.04

Kozyreva, A., Wineburg, S., Lewandowsky, S., & Hertwig, R. (2023). Critical ignoring as a core competence for digital citizens. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 32 (1), 81–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121570

Merriam-Webster. (2023a). Bias. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary . https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bias

Merriam-Webster. (2023b). Implicit bias. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary . https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/implicit%20bias

Plymouth University. (2010). Critical thinking . Learning Development with Plymouth University. https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/uploads/production/document/path/1/1710/Critical_Thinking.pdf

Stevenson, T. (2023, April 13). 80 ethical questions to ask yourself and others . Questions About Everything. https://questionsabouteverything.com/ethical-questions/#Looking_For_More_Questions

Vanderpool, A., & Robinson, T. A. (2017, November 29). Critical thinking: Multiple models for teaching and learning (abridged) . Teaching With Writing: The WIC Newsletter (Spring 2023). https://blogs.oregonstate.edu/wicnews/2017/11/29/critical-thinking-multiple-models-teaching-learning/#:~:text=Beyer’s%20evaluative%20thinking%20model&text=Thus%2C%20critical%20(or%2C%20to,(Beyer%201995%2C%2010

Introduction to Communications Copyright © 2023 by NorQuest College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Thomas Kelley-Kemple; Critical Thinking. Harvard Educational Review 1 March 2021; 91 (1): 133–135. doi: https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-91.1.133a

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In the preface to Critical Thinking, Jonathan Haber notes that the term critical thinking has become a hallmark of almost any set of educational goals set out in the past thirty years. Yet, the myriad politicians, policy makers, indus-try leaders, and educators who cite the importance of critical thinking as an essential twenty-first-century skill rarely offer a concrete definition or set of criteria for what mastering this all-important skill means. Individual state standards or standards that do detail what is meant by critical thinking are rarely read by the general public. Even teachers may only view the standards amid a litany of other standards and skills that must be imparted to students. Haber sets out to fill this gap for a generalist audience. As such, Critical Thinking fits well among other volumes in MIT Press’s Essential Knowledge Series, a collection of volumes that cover specialized topics from a range of disciplines in a nuanced manner suitable for a nonspecialized audience. This orientation is crucial for understanding its strengths and weaknesses as a book that seeks to provide an overview of the history of, the skills required for, and current pedagogical efforts toward developing critical thinking.

Haber begins with the Greek philosophers and moves through the Enlightenment and up to today. Of note for educators is the fact that even in ancient Greece, the skill of critical thinking was not designated as a specialty of philosophers but as a core component of the curriculum of the time. The common thread tying together the various people and movements Haber highlights is their focus on eschewing adherence to traditional understandings or accepted explanations for physical, social, and psychological phenomena and, instead, their willingness to examine and question underlying assumptions that support contemporary dogma. In many ways, this history lesson provides the clearest picture of what Haber means by “critical thinking” throughout the book: a willingness to continually reexamine one’s own beliefs and to engage in that same generous skepticism with others.

The second chapter is perhaps the most technical in the book, as it focuses primarily on introducing the building blocks of formal logic. Although not written directly as a resource for lesson planning, this chapter outlines a number of the concepts that are easily adaptable to units focused on building skills for critical thinking. Haber shows how diagramming an argument in terms of premises and conclusions can help students of all ages understand its structure. Similarly, drawing the distinction between the validity of an argument (Does the form of the argument align with valid logical principles?) and its soundness (Do the premises correspond to reality? or How likely are they to be disproven?) can provide insight into where an argument is weak or how to anticipate attacks against an argument. Beyond this crash course in introductory logic, Haber also highlights other skills that are important for critical thinking, namely language skills, information literacy, and creativity, as well as dispositions that are essential for critical thinkers, such as intellectual humility, intellectual courage, and fair-mindedness.

In the third and final substantive chapter, Haber outlines current approaches to teaching and measuring critical thinking in the US education system. Here Haber notes that the modern movement around explicitly teaching critical thinking can be traced to a 1983 requirement that all students graduating from California state colleges and universities complete a course on critical thinking. Following this, policy makers and curriculum developers have striven to include critical thinking in many of the standards that have been put forth, most notably the Common Core State Standards. In all, Haber highlights how the messaging and expectations around critical thinking instruction have been growing at almost every level of education and argues that this is a welcome trend. At the same time, he points out how the actual implementation of instruction in this area has been uneven and often lags behind the aspirational rhetoric of educational leaders. He makes a convincing case that the process of becoming a critical thinker and honing critical thinking skills is one that should be lifelong and that, in many ways, the best instruction for developing critical thinkers is consistent practice in applying those skills, both as explicit portions of curricula and implicitly throughout other content areas.

In Critical Thinking , Haber illustrates a portrait of a critical thinker that is rather comprehensive. In his telling, critical thinking is not a skill to be applied to specific situations or circumstances but a stance that one has toward almost all subjects and encounters. In many ways, this portrait is compelling. Haber argues that if students and adults approach political, social, and scientific questions with the tools, skills, and virtues outlined in the book, it is likely that US society will focus on how to deal with difficult problems like climate change or systemic racism rather than debating whether these problems exist. He also grapples with alternatives to the paradigm of critical thinking, most notably proponents of group or team thinking who assert that thinking must be conceived of as a social act, compared to the more individualistic endeavor of critical thinking. Haber further points out that there is room for emotion in the critical thinking framework, noting that “by balancing our emotional, intuitive, and reasoning selves, we avoid cutting ourselves off from valuable data required to apply reasoning effectively in a world made up of people rather than machines” (p. 147).

Yet, the book would have benefited from a slightly more nuanced look into the limitations of critical thinking as Haber describes it. Specifically, what questions or types of questions will this approach find difficult or impossible to resolve? While Haber makes a convincing case that applying critical thinking principles to scientific questions should lead us to continually refine our understanding of the world, it is not clear how these tools can be applied to more nebulous political or moral questions where there may be no objective truth. Certainly, thinking critically about one’s own or an opponent’s political and moral arguments can lead to greater understanding, but it is not clear that such understanding will lead to agreement or resolution.

While the rules for building arguments are clearly laid out in this book, the criteria for selecting their foundations are less obvious. While not everyone will work from the same set of basic premises or values, these starting points are critical for understanding the conclusions that people reach. Nor do the tenets of formal logic offer a clear way to engage with these most fundamental beliefs. Critical thinking can help two people analyze each other’s points of view, but it does not help adjudicate between different starting premises, such as the existence of God or even the appropriate role of government in people’s lives. While it is not necessary for Haber to resolve these tensions, an exploration into or an acknowledgment of these limitations would have been helpful for readers of all levels of expertise as they consider ways to incorporate critical thinking skills into their instruction, policy, or daily lives.

Critical Thinking does succeed in providing a thorough yet high-level introduction to historical and modern thought on the topic. Given the current diversity of curricula, standards, and mandates that feature critical thinking as a central component or outcome, it is helpful to have a resource that not only engages with but synthesizes these sources into a coherent whole. Haber welcomes this diversity as a strength and notes that while each of these sources has a slightly different take on critical thinking, there is wide overlap and consensus on many of the core points. He explores the tension between those who say that critical thinking should be taught explicitly as an independent discipline and those who advocate for incorporating critical thinking tasks into other content areas like science, reading, and writing, ultimately concluding that both approaches are necessary and beneficial. Similarly, although he does review and speak positively about a number of assessments that purport to measure critical thinking skills, he reminds the reader that a single assessment can only capture a limited view of a student’s critical thinking skills. If practitioners and policy makers are serious about making critical thinking an educational priority, approaches to its assessment and instruction need to be dealt with comprehensively rather than simply as another standard to be tacked on to an existing framework.

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