Four types: single holistic, single embedded, multiple holistic, multiple embedded
The post-positive paradigm postulates there is one reality that can be objectively described and understood by “bracketing” oneself from the research to remove prejudice or bias. 27 Yin focuses on general explanation and prediction, emphasizing the formulation of propositions, akin to hypothesis testing. This approach is best suited for structured and objective data collection 9 , 11 and is often used for mixed-method studies.
Constructivism assumes that the phenomenon of interest is constructed and influenced by local contexts, including the interaction between researchers, individuals, and their environment. 27 It acknowledges multiple interpretations of reality 24 constructed within the context by the researcher and participants which are unlikely to be replicated, should either change. 5 , 20 Stake and Merriam’s constructivist approaches emphasize a story-like rendering of a problem and an iterative process of constructing the case study. 7 This stance values researcher reflexivity and transparency, 28 acknowledging how researchers’ experiences and disciplinary lenses influence their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of the phenomenon and development of the findings.
A key tenet of case study methodology often underemphasized in literature is the importance of defining the case and phenomenon. Researches should clearly describe the case with sufficient detail to allow readers to fully understand the setting and context and determine applicability. Trying to answer a question that is too broad often leads to an unclear definition of the case and phenomenon. 20 Cases should therefore be bound by time and place to ensure rigor and feasibility. 6
Yin 22 defines a case as “a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context,” (p13) which may contain a single unit of analysis, including individuals, programs, corporations, or clinics 29 (holistic), or be broken into sub-units of analysis, such as projects, meetings, roles, or locations within the case (embedded). 30 Merriam 24 and Stake 5 similarly define a case as a single unit studied within a bounded system. Stake 5 , 23 suggests bounding cases by contexts and experiences where the phenomenon of interest can be a program, process, or experience. However, the line between the case and phenomenon can become muddy. For guidance, Stake 5 , 23 describes the case as the noun or entity and the phenomenon of interest as the verb, functioning, or activity of the case.
Yin’s approach to a case study is rooted in a formal proposition or theory which guides the case and is used to test the outcome. 1 Stake 5 advocates for a flexible design and explicitly states that data collection and analysis may commence at any point. Merriam’s 24 approach blends both Yin and Stake’s, allowing the necessary flexibility in data collection and analysis to meet the needs.
Yin 30 proposed three types of case study approaches—descriptive, explanatory, and exploratory. Each can be designed around single or multiple cases, creating six basic case study methodologies. Descriptive studies provide a rich description of the phenomenon within its context, which can be helpful in developing theories. To test a theory or determine cause and effect relationships, researchers can use an explanatory design. An exploratory model is typically used in the pilot-test phase to develop propositions (eg, Sibbald et al. 31 used this approach to explore interprofessional network complexity). Despite having distinct characteristics, the boundaries between case study types are flexible with significant overlap. 30 Each has five key components: (1) research question; (2) proposition; (3) unit of analysis; (4) logical linking that connects the theory with proposition; and (5) criteria for analyzing findings.
Contrary to Yin, Stake 5 believes the research process cannot be planned in its entirety because research evolves as it is performed. Consequently, researchers can adjust the design of their methods even after data collection has begun. Stake 5 classifies case studies into three categories: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective/multiple. Intrinsic case studies focus on gaining a better understanding of the case. These are often undertaken when the researcher has an interest in a specific case. Instrumental case study is used when the case itself is not of the utmost importance, and the issue or phenomenon (ie, the research question) being explored becomes the focus instead (eg, Paciocco 32 used an instrumental case study to evaluate the implementation of a chronic disease management program). 5 Collective designs are rooted in an instrumental case study and include multiple cases to gain an in-depth understanding of the complexity and particularity of a phenomenon across diverse contexts. 5 , 23 In collective designs, studying similarities and differences between the cases allows the phenomenon to be understood more intimately (for examples of this in the field, see van Zelm et al. 33 and Burrows et al. 34 In addition, Sibbald et al. 35 present an example where a cross-case analysis method is used to compare instrumental cases).
Merriam’s approach is flexible (similar to Stake) as well as stepwise and linear (similar to Yin). She advocates for conducting a literature review before designing the study to better understand the theoretical underpinnings. 24 , 25 Unlike Stake or Yin, Merriam proposes a step-by-step guide for researchers to design a case study. These steps include performing a literature review, creating a theoretical framework, identifying the problem, creating and refining the research question(s), and selecting a study sample that fits the question(s). 24 , 25 , 36
Using multiple data collection methods is a key characteristic of all case study methodology; it enhances the credibility of the findings by allowing different facets and views of the phenomenon to be explored. 23 Common methods include interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. 5 , 37 By seeking patterns within and across data sources, a thick description of the case can be generated to support a greater understanding and interpretation of the whole phenomenon. 5 , 17 , 20 , 23 This technique is called triangulation and is used to explore cases with greater accuracy. 5 Although Stake 5 maintains case study is most often used in qualitative research, Yin 17 supports a mix of both quantitative and qualitative methods to triangulate data. This deliberate convergence of data sources (or mixed methods) allows researchers to find greater depth in their analysis and develop converging lines of inquiry. For example, case studies evaluating interventions commonly use qualitative interviews to describe the implementation process, barriers, and facilitators paired with a quantitative survey of comparative outcomes and effectiveness. 33 , 38 , 39
Yin 30 describes analysis as dependent on the chosen approach, whether it be (1) deductive and rely on theoretical propositions; (2) inductive and analyze data from the “ground up”; (3) organized to create a case description; or (4) used to examine plausible rival explanations. According to Yin’s 40 approach to descriptive case studies, carefully considering theory development is an important part of study design. “Theory” refers to field-relevant propositions, commonly agreed upon assumptions, or fully developed theories. 40 Stake 5 advocates for using the researcher’s intuition and impression to guide analysis through a categorical aggregation and direct interpretation. Merriam 24 uses six different methods to guide the “process of making meaning” (p178) : (1) ethnographic analysis; (2) narrative analysis; (3) phenomenological analysis; (4) constant comparative method; (5) content analysis; and (6) analytic induction.
Drawing upon a theoretical or conceptual framework to inform analysis improves the quality of case study and avoids the risk of description without meaning. 18 Using Stake’s 5 approach, researchers rely on protocols and previous knowledge to help make sense of new ideas; theory can guide the research and assist researchers in understanding how new information fits into existing knowledge.
Columbia University has recently demonstrated how case studies can help train future health leaders. 41 Case studies encompass components of systems thinking—considering connections and interactions between components of a system, alongside the implications and consequences of those relationships—to equip health leaders with tools to tackle global health issues. 41 Greenwood 42 evaluated Indigenous peoples’ relationship with the healthcare system in British Columbia and used a case study to challenge and educate health leaders across the country to enhance culturally sensitive health service environments.
An important but often omitted step in case study research is an assessment of quality and rigour. We recommend using a framework or set of criteria to assess the rigour of the qualitative research. Suitable resources include Caelli et al., 43 Houghten et al., 44 Ravenek and Rudman, 45 and Tracy. 46
Although “pragmatic” case studies (ie, utilizing practical and applicable methods) have existed within psychotherapy for some time, 47 , 48 only recently has the applicability of pragmatism as an underlying paradigmatic perspective been considered in HSR. 49 This is marked by uptake of pragmatism in Randomized Control Trials, recognizing that “gold standard” testing conditions do not reflect the reality of clinical settings 50 , 51 nor do a handful of epistemologically guided methodologies suit every research inquiry.
Pragmatism positions the research question as the basis for methodological choices, rather than a theory or epistemology, allowing researchers to pursue the most practical approach to understanding a problem or discovering an actionable solution. 52 Mixed methods are commonly used to create a deeper understanding of the case through converging qualitative and quantitative data. 52 Pragmatic case study is suited to HSR because its flexibility throughout the research process accommodates complexity, ever-changing systems, and disruptions to research plans. 49 , 50 Much like case study, pragmatism has been criticized for its flexibility and use when other approaches are seemingly ill-fit. 53 , 54 Similarly, authors argue that this results from a lack of investigation and proper application rather than a reflection of validity, legitimizing the need for more exploration and conversation among researchers and practitioners. 55
Although occasionally misunderstood as a less rigourous research methodology, 8 case study research is highly flexible and allows for contextual nuances. 5 , 6 Its use is valuable when the researcher desires a thorough understanding of a phenomenon or case bound by context. 11 If needed, multiple similar cases can be studied simultaneously, or one case within another. 16 , 17 There are currently three main approaches to case study, 5 , 17 , 24 each with their own definitions of a case, ontological and epistemological paradigms, methodologies, and data collection and analysis procedures. 37
Individuals’ experiences within health systems are influenced heavily by contextual factors, participant experience, and intricate relationships between different organizations and actors. 55 Case study research is well suited for HSR because it can track and examine these complex relationships and systems as they evolve over time. 6 , 7 It is important that researchers and health leaders using this methodology understand its key tenets and how to conduct a proper case study. Although there are many examples of case study in action, they are often under-reported and, when reported, not rigorously conducted. 9 Thus, decision-makers and health leaders should use these examples with caution. The proper reporting of case studies is necessary to bolster their credibility in HSR literature and provide readers sufficient information to critically assess the methodology. We also call on health leaders who frequently use case studies 56 – 58 to report them in the primary research literature.
The purpose of this article is to advocate for the continued and advanced use of case study in HSR and to provide literature-based guidance for decision-makers, policy-makers, and health leaders on how to engage in, read, and interpret findings from case study research. As health systems progress and evolve, the application of case study research will continue to increase as researchers and health leaders aim to capture the inherent complexities, nuances, and contextual factors. 7
Simply put, the case method is a discussion of real-life situations that business executives have faced.
On average, you'll attend three to four different classes a day, for a total of about six hours of class time (schedules vary). To prepare, you'll work through problems with your peers.
Often, executives are surprised to discover that the objective of the case study is not to reach consensus, but to understand how different people use the same information to arrive at diverse conclusions. When you begin to understand the context, you can appreciate the reasons why those decisions were made. You can prepare for case discussions in several ways.
In self-reflection.
The time you spend here is deeply introspective. You're not only working with case materials and assignments, but also taking on the role of the case protagonist—the person who's supposed to make those tough decisions. How would you react in those situations? We put people in a variety of contexts, and they start by addressing that specific problem.
The discussion group is a critical component of the HBS experience. You're working in close quarters with a group of seven or eight very accomplished peers in diverse functions, industries, and geographies. Because they bring unique experience to play you begin to see that there are many different ways to wrestle with a problem—and that’s very enriching.
The faculty guides you in examining and resolving the issues—but the beauty here is that they don't provide you with the answers. You're interacting in the classroom with other executives—debating the issue, presenting new viewpoints, countering positions, and building on one another's ideas. And that leads to the next stage of learning.
Once you leave the classroom, the learning continues and amplifies as you get to know people in different settings—over meals, at social gatherings, in the fitness center, or as you are walking to class. You begin to distill the takeaways that you want to bring back and apply in your organization to ensure that the decisions you make will create more value for your firm.
Pioneered by HBS faculty, the case method puts you in the role of the chief decision maker as you explore the challenges facing leading companies across the globe. Learning to think fast on your feet with limited information sharpens your analytical skills and empowers you to make critical decisions in real time.
To get the most out of each case, it's important to read and reflect, and then meet with your discussion group to share your insights. You and your peers will explore the underlying issues, compare alternatives, and suggest various ways of resolving the problem.
There's more than one way to prepare for a case discussion, but these general guidelines can help you develop a method that works for you.
Read the professor's assignment or discussion questions.
The assignment and discussion questions help you focus on the key aspects of the case. Ask yourself: What are the most important issues being raised?
Each case begins with a text description followed by exhibits. Ask yourself: What is the case generally about, and what information do I need to analyze?
Put yourself in the shoes of the case protagonist, and own that person's problems. Ask yourself: What basic problem is this executive trying to resolve?
Sort out relevant considerations and do the quantitative or qualitative analysis. Ask yourself: What recommendations should I make based on my case data analysis?
The key to being an active listener and participant in case discussions—and to getting the most out of the learning experience—is thorough individual preparation.
We've set aside formal time for you to discuss the case with your group. These sessions will help you to become more confident about sharing your views in the classroom discussion.
Actively express your views and challenge others. Don't be afraid to share related "war stories" that will heighten the relevance and enrich the discussion.
If the content doesn't seem to relate to your business, don't tune out. You can learn a lot about marketing insurance from a case on marketing razor blades!
Actively apply what you're learning to your own specific management situations, both past and future. This will magnify the relevance to your business.
People with diverse backgrounds, experiences, skills, and styles will take away different things. Be sure to note what resonates with you, not your peers.
Being exposed to so many different approaches to a given situation will put you in a better position to enhance your management style.
What can i expect on the first day, what happens in class if nobody talks, does everyone take part in "role-playing".
A case study is a process of researching into a project and documenting through writings, sketches , diagrams, and photos. To understand the various aspects of designing and constructing a building one must consider learning from other people’s mistakes. As Albert Einstein quoted, “Learn from yesterday, live for today, and hope for tomorrow. The important thing is not to stop questioning.”
A case study can be a starting point of any project or it can also serve as a link or reference which can help in explaining the project with ease. It is not necessary that the building we choose for our case study should be the true representation of our project. The main purpose is to research and understand the concepts that an architect has used while designing that project and how it worked, and our aim should be to learn from its perfections as well as from its mistakes too while adding our creativity.
Certain points should be kept in mind while preparing the questionnaire, they are as follows,
Doing a case study and documenting information gives you various ideas and lets you peek into the minds of various architects who used their years of experience and dedicated their time to creating such fine structures. It is also fun as you get to meet different people, do lots of traveling, and have fun.
She is a budding architect hailing from the city of joy, Kolkata. With dreams in her eyes and determination in her will, she is all set to tell stories about buildings, cultures, and people through her point of view. She hopes you all enjoy her writings. Much love.
Related posts.
Rtf will connect you with right design studios.
“I’ve been so touched by how dedicated other people have been to my learning and my success.”
“The world desperately needs better leadership. It’s actually one of the great gifts of teaching here, you can do something about it.”
“You walk into work every morning and it's like a fire hose of decisions that need to be made, often without enough information. Just like an HBS case.”
“How do you go into an ambiguous situation and get to the bottom of it? That skill – the skill of figuring out a course of inquiry, to choose a course of action – that skill is as relevant today as it was in 1921.”
Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, case study methodology as a means of theory building: performance measurement in facilities management organisations.
ISSN : 0043-8022
Article publication date: 1 June 2001
Uses a research study (involving case study analysis of performance measurement in facilities management organisations) to describes the process of theory building. From this study it draws out lessons about research strategies – from specifying the research questions to reaching closure – and about the strengths and weaknesses of case study method as a research tool.
Amaratunga, D. and Baldry, D. (2001), "Case study methodology as a means of theory building: performance measurement in facilities management organisations", Work Study , Vol. 50 No. 3, pp. 95-105. https://doi.org/10.1108/00438020110389227
Copyright © 2001, MCB UP Limited
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Explosion shock dynamics and hazards in complex civil buildings: a case study of a severe fuel explosion accident in yinchuan, china.
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2.1. accident consequences and casualties, 2.1.1. accident damage consequences, 2.1.2. statistics of the number of deaths at the scene, 2.1.3. fuel leakage caused by human error, 2.1.4. accidental ignition of gas stoves, 2.2. explosion modeling, 2.2.1. physical model and initial condition, 2.2.2. pressure relief boundary, 2.2.3. fuel filling settings, 3.1. evolution of explosion accident consequences, 3.2. explosion consequences at key locations, 4. discussion of the accident cause and prevention suggestions, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
Time | Accident Province | Accident Description and Cause | Accident Consequence |
---|---|---|---|
21 June 2023 | Yinchuan City, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region | Incorrect operation caused gas leakage in the tank, resulting in an explosion when encountering an open flame. | 31 people died, and 7 people were injured. |
28 September 2022 | Changchun City, Jilin Province | Welding sparks caused methanol–air vapor deflagration, and a large amount of liquid methanol flowed onto the ground and caught fire. | 17 people died, and 3 people were injured. |
13 June 2021 | Shiyan City, Hubei Province | A gas pipeline was corroded and ruptured, and the leaked gas was ignited and exploded by the spark discharged by the exhaust fume pipeline. | 26 people died, and 138 people were injured. |
13 June 2020 | Wenling City, Zhejiang Province | After a tank was torn and disintegrated, gas rapidly ejected, vaporized, diffused, and exploded in the presence of sparks generated by vehicles. | 20 people died, and 175 people were injured. |
10 October 2015 | Wuhu City, Anhui Province | Improper operation caused the angle valve to fall off, and a large amount of gas was ejected and exploded after exposure to open fire. | 17 people died. |
11 June 2013 | Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province | A gas pipeline was not cut off, causing leakage, and an electrical spark caused an explosion. | 12 people died, and 8 people were injured. |
23 November 2012 | Jinzhong City, Shanxi Province | The corner valve of a cylinder was not closed, which led to gas leakage and an explosion in the case of a relay spark. | 14 people died, and 47 people were injured. |
14 November 2011 | Xian City, Shaanxi Province | Bottled gas leaked due to incomplete closure of the liquid phase valve. | 11 people died, and 31 people were injured. |
Pressure Relief Plate | Opening Pressure (kPa) | Area (m ) | Area Mass (kg/m ) |
---|---|---|---|
Glass door on the 1st floor | 15 | 8.38 | 12.5 |
Glass wall on the 1st floor | 15 | 13.4 | 12.5 |
West wall of the cooking area | 70 | 15.41 | 252 |
East wall of the barbecue area | 55 | 7.27 | 168 |
Doors of all rooms on the 2nd floor | 3 | 3.1 | 30 |
Location | Overpressure (kPa) | Temperature (K) | Description of Explosion Consequences |
---|---|---|---|
Cooking area | 80.5 | 1996 | Personnel: Severe shock-wave injury, severe burns. |
Building: Complete destruction (Level 7). The adjacent walls of the stairs collapsed, and the north wall was seriously displaced. | |||
Barbecue area | 92.0 | 2077 | Personnel: Severe shock-wave injury, severe burns. |
Building: Complete destruction (Level 7). The east wall collapsed. | |||
Toilet doorway | 70.8 | 1927 | Personnel: Severe shock-wave injury, severe burns. |
Building: Serious damage (Level 6). | |||
Store room | 67.4 | 1677 | Personnel: Severe shock-wave injury, severe burns. |
Building: Serious damage (Level 6). The self-built non-load-bearing wall collapsed. | |||
Dining hall | 32.0 | 220 | Personnel: Mild injury, may be damaged by debris. |
Building: Moderate damage (Level 4). Wooden doors and windows were extensively damaged. | |||
Restaurant entrance | 21.6 | 102 | Personnel: Mild injury, may be damaged by debris. |
Building: Mild damage (Level 3). Glass shattered and debris flew out. |
Location | Overpressure (kPa) | Temperature (K) | Description of Explosion Consequences |
---|---|---|---|
Stair | 78.0 | 1766 | Personnel: Severe shock-wave injury, severe burns. |
Building: Serious damage (Level 6). The east wall of the stairs collapsed and the north wall moved. | |||
Corridor | 41.0 | 1007 | Personnel: Moderate shock-wave injury, burns. |
Building: Moderate damage (Level 4). Wall decorations were broken. | |||
Room 111 | 39.2 | 580~880 | Personnel: Moderate shock-wave injury, minor burns. |
Building: Moderate damage (Level 4). Wooden ceiling and decorations fell. | |||
Other rooms | 20.0 | 350~400 | Personnel: Mild injury. |
Building: Mild damage (Level 3). A small number of decorative pieces fell. | |||
Toilet | 42.0 | 357 | Personnel: Moderate shock-wave injury. |
Building: Moderate damage (Level 4). |
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Hu, Q.; Zhang, R.; Qian, X.; Yuan, M.; Li, P. Explosion Shock Dynamics and Hazards in Complex Civil Buildings: A Case Study of a Severe Fuel Explosion Accident in Yinchuan, China. Fire 2024 , 7 , 310. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7090310
Hu Q, Zhang R, Qian X, Yuan M, Li P. Explosion Shock Dynamics and Hazards in Complex Civil Buildings: A Case Study of a Severe Fuel Explosion Accident in Yinchuan, China. Fire . 2024; 7(9):310. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7090310
Hu, Qianran, Ruoheng Zhang, Xinming Qian, Mengqi Yuan, and Pengliang Li. 2024. "Explosion Shock Dynamics and Hazards in Complex Civil Buildings: A Case Study of a Severe Fuel Explosion Accident in Yinchuan, China" Fire 7, no. 9: 310. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7090310
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Chennai city has implemented numerous strategies and plans to effectively manage the municipal solid waste by the municipal corporation. One of the prime strategy is the establishment of public–private partnership schemes, which play a crucial role in enhancing waste management practices. This case study focus to assess the conservancy operations carried out by multiple stakeholders in order to identify the strengths and areas for improvement in the waste management system. The study involved a range of strategies, including data collection, interviews, surveys, documentation, quantitative and thematic analysis, triangulation, and validation methods to ensure reliable outcomes. The findings reveal that 12.54% wet waste, 7.42% dry waste, and 0.07% hazardous waste are currently being segregated, while the majority of waste ends up in dumping grounds. Despite of private company’s involvement, waste management practices are not optimized due to inadequate infrastructure, improper placement of facilities, underutilized design capacities, complex routing mechanisms, and outdated waste management plans. To achieve operational excellence and minimize compliance deviations, it is imperative for public sectors to prioritize integration of technological infrastructure and establishing real time regulatory plans and frameworks. As an outcome, full potential of service can be harnessed leading to a more efficient and sustainable waste management system. At the outset, this study emphasizes the need for strategic interventions, improved infrastructure, revised waste management plans, and increased collaboration between public and private sectors to address existing challenges and enhance the waste management practices in Chennai city.
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Authors would like to thank SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India for providing the research facilities to carry out this research work in time.
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Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu, 603 203, India
R. Shiam Babu & K. Prasanna
Centre for Pollution Control and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology, Pondicherry University, Kalapet, Puducherry, 605014, India
P. Senthil Kumar
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Pollachi Main Road, Eachanari Post, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, 641021, India
G. Rangasamy
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R. Shiam Babu: Conceptualization; Investigation; Methodology; Validation; Writing original draft. P. Senthil Kumar and K. Prasanna: Conceptualization; Investigation; Methodology; Supervision; Validation. Gayathri Rangasamy: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Visualization.
Correspondence to P. Senthil Kumar .
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Shiam Babu, R., Prasanna, K., Senthil Kumar, P. et al. Comprehensive assessment of current municipal solid waste management in Chennai, India: a critical case study with real-time analysis. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-06009-5
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Revised : 07 July 2024
Accepted : 19 August 2024
Published : 29 August 2024
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-06009-5
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