• ...is an important factor/concept/idea/ to consider because...
• … will be argued/outlined in this paper.
Once you have finished writing your first draft it is recommended that you spend time revising your work. Proofreading and editing are two different stages of the revision process.
As can be seen in the figure above there are four main areas that you should review during the editing phase of the revision process. The main things to consider when editing include content, structure, style, and sources. It is important to check that all the content relates to the assignment task, the structure is appropriate for the purposes of the assignment, the writing is academic in style, and that sources have been adequately acknowledged. Use the checklist below when editing your work.
Editing checklist
There are also several key things to look out for during the proofreading phase of the revision process. In this stage it is important to check your work for word choice, grammar and spelling, punctuation and referencing errors. It can be easy to mis-type words like ‘from’ and ‘form’ or mix up words like ‘trail’ and ‘trial’ when writing about research, apply American rather than Australian spelling, include unnecessary commas or incorrectly format your references list. The checklist below is a useful guide that you can use when proofreading your work.
Proofreading checklist
This chapter has examined the experience of writing assignments. It began by focusing on how to read and break down an assignment question, then highlighted the key components of essays. Next, it examined some techniques for paraphrasing and summarising, and how to build an argument. It concluded with a discussion on planning and structuring your assignment and giving it that essential polish with editing and proof-reading. Combining these skills and practising them, can greatly improve your success with this very common form of assessment.
Academic Skills Centre. (2013). Writing an introduction and conclusion . University of Canberra, accessed 13 August, 2013, http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/writing/conclusions
Balkis, M., & Duru, E. (2016). Procrastination, self-regulation failure, academic life satisfaction, and affective well-being: underregulation or misregulation form. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 31 (3), 439-459.
Custer, N. (2018). Test anxiety and academic procrastination among prelicensure nursing students. Nursing education perspectives, 39 (3), 162-163.
Yerdelen, S., McCaffrey, A., & Klassen, R. M. (2016). Longitudinal examination of procrastination and anxiety, and their relation to self-efficacy for self-regulated learning: Latent growth curve modeling. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16 (1).
Writing Assignments Copyright © 2021 by Kate Derrington; Cristy Bartlett; and Sarah Irvine is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
Teaching Expertise
December 6, 2022 // by Lauren Jannette
Get ready to read! These exciting activities help students build skills in reading comprehension, creative writing, and critical thinking. Give your students instructions for each activity, and watch as they get excited about reading! Grab a selection of joke books, reference books, and maybe a picture of a book or two. Then read the different types of texts to figure out why the author wrote the book!
Before you start your author’s purpose lessons, plan a review with students. Go over categories of purpose: Persuade, Inform, and Entertain. Then have them fill in which genres of literature go under each category. Make miniature versions for a handy graphic organizer.
Learn more: Indulgy
This printable author’s purpose worksheet is perfect for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd-grade students. Have your students read the book covers and color each according to the author’s reason for writing the book!
Learn more: The Moffat Girls
A great interactive author’s purpose activity! After your kids have picked their piece, spin the spinner and determine why the author wrote their short story. If they guess right, they get to move ahead. If they’re wrong, they go back to the number of spaces they spun.
Learn more: Room Recess
Start the week off with this easy activity. Choose a book from your classroom library. After reading a passage, have students complete the exercises. The worksheet is a chance for students to demonstrate their comprehension of the passage.
Learn more: Fourth & Ten
A fun and interactive activity for students of all ages! Send your kids on a scavenger hunt at your local library to find books fitting each category. This great alternative to worksheets makes learning active and exciting!
Learn more: Use My Mind Save Your Time
This activity is a harder task for students. To create this graphic organizer, students begin by deciding the author’s purpose. They then have to uncover the author’s thesis ideas and supporting evidence. This type of writing assignment is great for middle school students.
Learn more: Cultivating Critical Readers
Perfect for small-group learning! Have your students read aloud texts of different genres. Then have them write down the details listed on the recipe. Follow the instructions closely. Finish by “cooking up” the main ideas to discover the reasons authors wrote their books.
Learn more: The Simple Classroom
This task card set is the perfect introduction to the topic of the author’s purpose. Read the description on each card. Then have your students choose the correct category for each one. Turn it into a partner vs. partner game for even more fun!
Learn more: Staying Cool in the Library
If you’re teaching digitally, this resource is for you. These task cards make quizzing simple, easy, and fun! As students take the quiz, they receive detailed information to help plan their next lessons. Have students use the examples on task cards to create their own!
Learn more: Book Units Teacher
Help your students remember the key points of an author’s purpose with this poster. It clearly outlines the author’s and reader’s jobs. Have students create their own mini anchor charts to refer to throughout the year. An awesome addition to your classroom writing center!
Learn more: The Classroom Key
Kids love coloring and finding hidden messages! This printable worksheet combines both for a fun author’s purpose activity. Do the first few together. Then have your students pair off and complete the rest by themselves. Have learners come back together afterward to discuss their decisions.
Learn more: The Tahoe Teacher
Give your students a selection of reading passages for this activity. As they read the passages, have them complete the checklist to find out why the author wrote what they did. Ask older students to write an analytical paragraph for each passage explaining their choice.
Learn more: Read Like a Rock Star
This is perfect for younger elementary students. Make up a tune and teach your kids the lyrics. Sing it at the beginning of each lesson about the author’s purpose to make sure they remember. Ask them to pick a book for each stanza and hold it up when they sing it!
Learn more: Blog Lovin’
These easy-to-create anchor charts are perfect for students of all ages. Grab a paper plate and divide it into sections. Label each section with each type of author’s purpose and its characteristics. Pin book titles to each category throughout the year!
Learn more: Teach Junkie
Write book titles on pieces of construction paper. Create the outer cover for each flip book of P.I.E. Have your kids sort and glue the books into the correct categories. Add a new page for every book your kids read during the year!
Learn more: Upper Elementary Snapshots
Ask your kids about their writing. Why do they write? Make a list of their reasons and the types of writing they do. Then sort each one into a corresponding author’s purpose category.
Learn more: Use My Mi nd Save Your Time
Entertain your puzzle lovers with this activity! Cut and laminate the pieces for each author’s purpose. Help your students put the correct pieces together. Add more categories, details, and descriptions to challenge older students.
Learn more: Teach Starter
Integrate this worksheet into your older students’ author’s purpose activities. The comprehensive worksheet has students provide evidence for their choice about the author’s motivations. A great way to start reading reflection activities!
Learn more: Christian Homeschool Hub
A simple way for kids to visualize the author’s purpose is to sort the books themselves! Grab a stack of books or a scholastic book magazine. Then place each book in the correct category. Divide the books into two piles and make it a race!
Start your students off with this easy exercise. Read the short passages provided and then have them decide the author’s intent for writing. The additional questions are a great way to test their reading comprehension skills.
Learn more: Unmisravle
Create task cards containing different people, places, and things. Mix them up and place them face down. Then have your kids spin the spinner and pick up a card. Have everyone write a sentence using the topic and image! The funniest sentence wins a prize!
This handbook is a brief yet comprehensive reference for you to consult as you write papers and other assignments for a college course. You can refer to it as you draft paragraphs and polish sentences for clarity, conciseness, and point of view. You can read it to learn how to identify and revise common sentence errors and confused words. You can use it to help you edit your writing and fine-tune your use of verbs, pronouns, punctuation, and mechanics. And you can have it open as you integrate and cite quotations as well as other source material in your papers in MLA or APA style.
Designed as a reference tool, the handbook is organized to help you get answers to your questions. You do not need to read the entire handbook to get helpful information from it. For example, if your instructor has noted that you need to work on comma splices, you can refer to Sentence Errors , before you turn in a final draft of your writing. If you know you frequently misuse commas, refer to Punctuation , and check your sentences against the advice there. And if you, like many writers, can’t remember which punctuation marks go inside and outside quotation marks, refer to Quotations . Becoming familiar with the handbook and the various topics will allow you to use it efficiently.
Paragraphs help readers make their way through prose writing by presenting it in manageable chunks. Transitions link sentences and paragraphs so that readers can clearly understand how the points you are making relate to one another. (See Editing Focus: Paragraph and Transitions for a related discussion of paragraphs and transitions. See Evaluation: Transitions for a related discussion of transitions in multimodal compositions.)
Paragraphs are guides for readers. Each new paragraph signals either a new idea, further development of an existing idea, or a new direction. An effective paragraph has a main point supported by evidence, is organized in a sensible way, and is neither too short nor too long. When a paragraph is too short, it often lacks enough evidence and examples to back up your claims. When a paragraph is too long, readers can lose the point you are making.
A paragraph is easier to write and easier to read when it centers on a main point. The main point of the paragraph is usually expressed in a topic sentence . The topic sentence frequently comes at the start of the paragraph, but not always. No matter the position, however, the other sentences in the paragraph support the main point.
All the sentences that develop the paragraph should support or expand on the main point given in the topic sentence. Depending on the type of writing you are doing, support may include evidence from sources—such as facts, statistics, and expert opinions—as well as examples from your own experience. Paragraphs also may include an analysis of your evidence written in your own words. The analysis explains the significance of the evidence to the reader and reinforces the main point of the paragraph.
In the following example, the topic sentence is underlined. The supporting evidence discussed through cause-and-effect reasoning comes in the next three sentences. The paragraph concludes with two sentences of analysis in the writer’s own words.
underline Millions of retired Americans rely on Social Security benefits to make ends meet after they turn 65. end underline According to the Social Security Administration, about 46 million retired workers receive benefits, a number that reflects about 90 percent of retired people. Although experts disagree on the exact numbers, somewhere between 12 percent and 40 percent of retirees count on social security for all of their income, making these benefits especially important (Konish). These benefits become more important as people age. According to Eisenberg, people who reach the age of 85 become more financially vulnerable because their health care and long-term care costs increase at the same time their savings have been drawn down. It should therefore come as no surprise that people worry about changes to the program. Social Security keeps millions of retired Americans out of poverty.
Readers pay attention to the opening of a piece of writing, so make it work for you. After starting with a descriptive title, write an opening paragraph that grabs readers’ attention and alerts them to what’s coming. A strong opening paragraph provides the first clues about your subject and your stance. In academic writing, whether argumentative, interpretative, or informative, the introduction often ends with a clear thesis statement , a declarative sentence that states the topic, the angle you are taking, and the aspects of the topic the rest of the paper will support.
Depending on the type of writing you’re doing, you can open in a variety of ways.
The following introduction opens with an anecdote and ends with the thesis statement, which is underlined.
Betty stood outside the salon, wondering how to get in. It was June of 2020, and the door was locked. A sign posted on the door provided a phone number for her to call to be let in, but at 81, Betty had lived her life without a cell phone. Betty’s day-to-day life had been hard during the pandemic, but she had planned for this haircut and was looking forward to it: she had a mask on and hand sanitizer in her car. Now she couldn’t get in the door, and she was discouraged. In that moment, Betty realized how much Americans’ dependence on cell phones had grown in the months she and millions of others had been forced to stay at home. underline Betty and thousands of other senior citizens who could not afford cell phones or did not have the technological skills and support they needed were being left behind in a society that was increasingly reliant on technology end underline .
The conclusion is your final chance to make the point of your writing stick in readers’ minds by reinforcing what they have read. Depending on the purpose for your writing and your audience, you can summarize your main points and restate your thesis, draw a logical conclusion, speculate about the issues you have raised, or recommend a course of action, as shown in the following conclusion:
Although many senior citizens purchased and learned new technologies during the COVID-19 pandemic, a significant number of older people like Betty were unable to buy and/or learn the technology they needed to keep them connected to the people and services they needed. As society becomes increasingly dependent on technology, social service agencies, religious institutions, medical providers, senior centers, and other organizations that serve the elderly need to be equipped to help them access and become proficient in the technologies essential to their daily lives.
Transitional words and phrases show the connections or relationships between sentences and paragraphs and help your writing flow smoothly from one idea to the next.
A paragraph flows when ideas are organized logically and sentences move smoothly from one to the next. Transitional words and phrases help your writing flow by signaling to readers what’s coming in the next sentence. In the paragraph below, the topic sentence and transitional words and phrases are underlined.
underline Some companies court the public by mentioning environmental problems and pointing out that they do not contribute to these problems. end underline underline For example end underline , the natural gas industry often presents natural gas as a good alternative to coal. underline However end underline , according to the Union of Concerned Scientists, the drilling and extraction of natural gas from wells and transporting it through pipelines leaks methane, a major cause of global warming (“Environmental Impacts”). underline Yet end underline leaks are rarely mentioned by the industry. By taking credit for problems they don’t cause and being silent on the ones they do, companies present a favorable environmental image that often obscures the truth.
Following are some transitional words and phrases and their functions in paragraphs. Use this list when drafting or revising to help guide readers through your writing. (See Editing Focus: Paragraphs and Transitions for another discussion on transitions.)
to compare or show similarity | likewise, similarly, in like manner |
to contrast or change direction | but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, at the same time, on the other hand, conversely |
to add to | also, and, furthermore, next, then, in addition |
to give examples | for example, for instance, to illustrate, specifically, thus |
to agree or concede | certainly, of course, to be sure, granted |
to summarize or conclude | finally, in conclusion, in short, in other words, thus, in summary |
to show time | first, second, third, next, then, soon, meanwhile, later, currently, concurrently, at the same time, eventually, at last, finally |
to show a spatial relationship | here, there, in the background, in the foreground, in the distance, to the left, to the right, near, above, below |
This section will help you write strong sentences that convey your meaning clearly and concisely. See Editing Focus: Sentence Structure for a related discussion and practice on effective sentences.
The most emphatic place in a sentence is the end. To achieve the strongest emphasis, end with the idea you want readers to remember. Place introductory, less important, or contextual information earlier in the sentence. Consider the differences in these two sentences.
Less Emphatic Angel underline needs to start now end underline if he wants to have an impact on his sister’s life. More Emphatic If Angel wants to have an impact on his sister’s life, he underline needs to start now end underline .
General nouns name broad classes or categories of things ( man, dog, city ); concrete nouns refer to particular things ( Michael, collie, Chicago ). Concrete nouns provide a more vivid and lively reading experience because they create stronger images that activate readers’ senses. The examples below show how concrete nouns, combined with specific details, can make writing more engaging.
All General Nouns Approaching the library, I see underline people end underline and underline dogs end underline milling about underline outside end underline , but no subjects to write about. I’m tired from my underline walk end underline and go inside. Revised with Concrete Nouns Approaching underline Brandon Library end underline , I see underline skateboarders end underline and underline bikers end underline weaving through underline students end underline who talk in underline clusters end underline on the underline library steps end underline . A friendly underline collie end underline waits for its owner to return. Subjects to write about? Nothing strikes me as especially interesting. Besides, my heart is still pounding from the walk up the hill. I wipe my sweaty underline forehead end underline and go inside.
Active voice refers to the way a writer uses verbs in a sentence. Verbs have two “voices”: active and passive. In the active voice , the subject of the sentence acts—the subject performs the action of the verb. In the passive voice , the subject receives the action, and the object actually becomes the subject. Although some passive sentences are necessary and clear, a paper full of passive-voice constructions lacks vitality and becomes wordy.
Active-voice verbs make something happen. By using active verbs wherever possible, you will create stronger, clearer, and more concise sentences.
Passive Voice On the post-training survey, the anti-harassment tutorial underline was rated end underline highly informative underline by end underline employees. Revised in Active Voice On the post-training survey, underline employees end underline underline rated end underline the anti-harassment tutorial highly informative.
Concise writing considers the importance of every word. Editing sentences for emphasis, concrete nouns, and active voice will help you write clearly and precisely, as will the following strategies. To be concise, eliminate wasted words and filler— not ideas, information, description, or details that will interest readers or help them follow your thoughts. (For more on conciseness, see Editing Focus: Sentence Structure .)
Using action verbs is one of the most direct ways to cut unneeded words. Whenever you find a phrase like the ones below, consider substituting an action verb.
reach a decision, come to a decision | decide |
made a choice | chose |
hold a meeting | meet |
arrive at a conclusion | conclude |
have a discussion | discuss |
Eliminate words and phrases that do not add meaning. Consider the following sentences, which say essentially the same thing.
Wordy In almost every situation that I can think of, with few exceptions, it will make good sense for you to look for as many places as possible to cut out needless, redundant, and repetitive words and phrases from the papers, reports, paragraphs, and sentences you write for college assignments. (49 words) Concise Whenever possible, cut needless words and phrases from your college writing. (11 words)
The wordy sentence is full of early-draft language in three chunks. The first chunk comes at the beginning of the sentence. Notice how In almost every situation that I can think of, with few exceptions, it will make good sense for you to look for as many places as possible is reduced to Whenever possible in the concise sentence.
The second chunk of the wordy sentence is needless, redundant, and repetitive. The concise version reduces those four words to needless because the words have the same meaning. The third chunk of the wordy sentence comes at the end. Notice how papers, reports, paragraphs, and sentences you write for college assignments is reduced to your college writing. The meaning, although expanded to all writing, remains the same.
The following phrases are common fillers that add nothing to meaning. They should be avoided.
Some common filler phrases have single-word alternatives, which are preferable.
at all times | always |
at the present time | now |
at this point in time | now |
for the purpose of | for |
due to the fact that | because |
the reason being | because |
in the final analysis | finally |
last but not least | finally |
Starting a sentence with there is, there are, or it is can be useful to draw attention to a change in direction. However, starting a sentence with one of these phrases often forces you into a wordy construction. Wordiness means the presence of verbal filler; it does not mean the number of words, the amount of description, or the length of a composition. (For more on these constructions, see Editing Focus: Sentence Structure .)
Wordy underline There is often uncertainty about whether or not employees end underline are required to turn on their cameras during online meetings, and underline there are end underline some employees underline who end underline don’t. However, underline it is the expectation of employers end underline that cameras underline be end underline turned on. Concise underline Employees are often uncertain whether they end underline must turn on their cameras during online meetings, and underline some don’t end underline . However, underline employers expect end underline cameras to be turned on.
Within a sentence, parallelism —the repetition of a word or grammatical construction— creates symmetry and balance, makes an idea easier to remember, and sounds pleasing to the ear. In the first example below, the parallelism is established by the repetition of the phrase beginning with who . In the second example, the parallelism is created by the underlined nouns.
Unparallel After 25 years, the battle over the reintroduction of wolves continues between environmental activists, underline who support it end underline , and underline hunters and people who own cattle ranches and are opposed end underline . Parallel After 25 years, the battle over the reintroduction of wolves continues between environmental activists, underline who support it end underline , and cattle ranchers and hunters, underline who oppose it end underline . Unparallel Exercises that improve core strength include underline crunches end underline , underline leg lifts end underline , and underline when you do push-ups and planks end underline . Parallel Exercises that improve core strength include underline crunches end underline , underline leg lifts end underline , underline push-ups end underline , and underline planks end underline .
Varying the length and structure of sentences makes your writing more interesting to read.
A simple sentence has one idea expressed in a single main clause (also known as an independent clause). A main clause contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence. A simple sentence can be short or long, as shown in the examples below. The phrases in the long sentence add information, but the sentence remains a simple sentence nonetheless because it has only one clause.
The underline coronavirus end underline double underline spread end double underline around in the world in 2020. School-age underline children end underline and college underline students end underline double underline were pushed end double underline into virtual learning environments in March 2020, with schools closing for unspecified lengths of time.
A compound sentence contains two or more main clauses that are equally important to the meaning of the sentence. (A main clause contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence.) You can create compound sentences in the following ways:
Compound Sentence Using a Coordinating Conjunction
Create a compound sentence by using a coordinating conjunction — for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so (fanboys)— to join main clauses . To remember the coordinating conjunctions, use the mnemonic device fanboys.
underline Restaurants end underline and small underline retailers end underline double underline experienced end double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic, and underline many end underline double underline were forced end double underline to close. underline Restaurants end underline and small underline retailers end underline double underline experienced end double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic, yet underline many end underline double underline survived end double underline the downturn.
Compound Sentence Using a Semicolon
A semicolon can join two main clauses that are closely related in meaning. When using a semicolon, you must have a complete sentence before and after it.
underline Restaurants end underline and small underline retailers end underline double underline experienced end double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic ; underline many end underline double underline were forced end double underline to close.
Compound Sentence Using a Semicolon and Transitional Word or Phrase
A transitional words or phrases such as however, in fact, meanwhile, therefore, consequently, as a result, instead, or furthermore indicates the relation of two or more equally important ideas in the main clauses.
underline Restaurants end underline and small underline retailers end underline double underline experienced end double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic ; however , underline many end underline double underline survived end double underline the downturn.
A complex sentence contains one main clause (a clause that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence) and one or more subordinate clauses (also known as dependent clauses). Subordinate clauses begin with a subordinating word or phrase such as although, because, even if, when, whenever, since, as though, whether, as long as, until, or while. The main clause expresses the main idea of the sentence, and the subordinate clause expresses the less important idea. Like a main clause, a subordinate clause has a subject and verb; however, unlike a main clause, it cannot stand alone as a sentence. A subordinate clause punctuated as a sentence is a type of sentence fragment. The subordinate clauses in the following sentences are underlined.
underline Although the federal government provided financial assistance end underline , the money came too late for many businesses. underline When schools and universities shut down in March of 2020 end underline , students had to learn at home, underline a situation that proved challenging for many households end underline .
A compound-complex sentence contains two or more main clauses (clauses that contain subjects and predicates and can stand alone as sentences) and one or more subordinate clauses (clauses that begin with a subordinating word such as although, because, even if, when, whenever, since, as though, whether, as long as, until, and while ). A compound-complex sentence is an effective structure to use when you want to express three or more ideas in a single sentence. The example sentence has two main clauses (double underline) and three subordinate clauses (single underline).
underline When school districts reopened end underline , double underline parents had to decide end double underline underline whether they wanted their children to attend classes in person end underline , double underline and they had to be ready for classes to move online end double underline underline if there were outbreaks of the coronavirus in their community. end underline
These four common sentence errors can make your writing hard to read: fragments, comma splices, run-on sentences, and mixed constructions.
A sentence fragment is a group of words that lacks a subject, a verb, or both, or it is a subordinate clause (a clause that begins with a subordinating word such as although, because, since, and so on) punctuated as though it were a sentence by itself. Although most are grammatical errors, sentence fragments can be used judiciously in conventional writing so long as the purpose is clear to readers and the fragment is clearly intended.
Often a sentence fragment follows a complete sentence and expands on it, as illustrated in the examples below (fragments are underlined). You can correct most fragment errors by attaching the fragment to the sentence to which it belongs or by rewriting the fragment as a complete sentence.
Sentence Fragment People think that they will be happy if they are well off. underline That money will make everything better. end underline Revised by Attaching the Fragment to a Complete Sentence People think that they will be happy if they are well off underline and end underline that money will make everything better. Sentence Fragment Psychologist David Myers explains how students have increasingly chosen to attend college to make more money. Thus underline further explaining his point of people’s desire to use money to gain happiness. end underline Revised by Attaching the Fragment to a Complete Sentence Psychologist David Myers explains how students have increasingly chosen to attend college to make more money, underline thus further explaining his point of people’s desire to use money to gain happiness. end underline Sentence Fragment Although income grew, people’s happiness did not. underline With rich people reporting that even though they had plenty of money, their happiness had not changed much. end underline Revised by Adding a Verb Although income grew, people’s happiness did not. underline Rich people reported end underline that even though they had plenty of money, their happiness had not changed much. Sentence Fragment For many people, increased income is being spent on the things that people are unable to pay less for. underline Things like taxes, childcare, transportation, and housing. end underline Revised by Adding a Subject and a Verb For many people, increased income is being spent on things that people are unable to pay less for. underline These include end underline taxes, childcare, transportation, and housing.
Intentional sentence fragments force quick reading, inviting readers to stitch meaning to together. Intentional fragments are most common in creative writing and advertising.
The rabbit darted out of the shadows. underline A flash of movement. end underline The dog lunged and strained at the leash.
A comma splice is a common error that occurs when two complete sentences are joined by a comma. You can correct a comma splice by adding a coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so), adding a period and creating two sentences, adding a coordinating conjunction and creating a compound sentence, or subordinating one clause and creating a complex sentence.
Comma Splice The author sheds light on the financial sacrifice many mothers make , they take care of their children without compensation and often lose professional status. Revised with a Coordinating Conjunction The author sheds light on the financial sacrifice many mothers make, underline for end underline they take care of their children without compensation and often lose professional status.
Comma Splice Many college students see their education as the way to become wealthy , some are sacrificing happiness to pursue high-paying careers. Revised with a Period Many college students see their education as the way to become wealthy . S ome are sacrificing happiness to pursue high-paying careers.
Comma Splice Psychologist David Myers conducted multiple surveys asking people about their attitudes about money , the results revealed that people felt they needed more regardless of how much they had. Revised with a Semicolon Psychologist David Myers conducted multiple surveys asking people about their attitudes about money ; the results revealed that people felt they needed more regardless of how much they had.
Comma Splice Love cannot be paid for , it is a gift that parents give because they love their children. Revised with a Semicolon and Transitional Word or Phrase Love cannot be paid for ; underline indeed end underline , it is a gift that parents give because they love their children.
Comma Splice Students are choosing majors to enable them to earn more money , they are under the misconception that earning money guarantees happiness. Revised with a Subordinate Clause Students are choosing majors to enable them to earn more money underline because end underline they are under the misconception that earning money guarantees happiness.
In a run-on sentence , two or more complete sentences are not separated by any punctuation. Like comma splices, most run-on sentences can be revised in one or more of the following ways: adding a coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so ), adding a period and creating two sentences, separating the sentences with a semicolon, separating the sentences with a semicolon and transitional word or phrase (such as on the other hand, however, consequently, and so on), or turning the less important sentence into a subordinate clause starting with a subordinating word such as although, because, if, when, since , and so on.
Run-on Sentence The DNR eventually designated the area as crucial habitat the protection came too late to save the nesting birds. Revised with a Comma and a Coordinating Conjunction The DNR eventually designated the area as crucial habitat , underline but end underline the protection came too late to save the nesting birds. Run-on Sentence Most people realize that being wealthy won’t just happen many college students choose a major that will ensure they make money. Revised with a Period Most people realize that being wealthy won’t just happen . Many college students choose a major that will ensure they make money. Run-on Sentence Parents do not expect any financial reward they care for their children out of love and responsibility. Revised with a Semicolon Parents do not expect any financial reward ; they care for their children out of love and responsibility. Run-on Sentence The average American family’s expenses have risen faster than incomes they have saved less than prior generations. Revised with a Semicolon and Transitional Word or Phrase The average American family’s expenses have risen faster than incomes ; underline as a result end underline , they have saved less than prior generations. Run-on Sentence College students have the opportunity to choose any major they tend to choose those that offer immediate opportunities to earn money when they graduate. Revised with a Subordinate Clause underline Although end underline college students have the opportunity to choose any major underline , end underline they tend to choose those that offer immediate opportunities to earn money when they graduate.
A mixed sentence contains parts that do not fit together because of grammar or meaning. In the following example, the writer needs to revise either the second part to fit with the first part or the first part to fit with the second. (See Editing Focus: Mixed Sentence Constructions for more on mixed sentence constructions.)
Mixed Sentence underline By starting my general studies classes last semester end underline underline gave me the opportunity to take classes in my major this fall end underline . Second Part Revised By starting my general studies classes last spring, underline I had end underline the opportunity to take classes in my major this fall. First Part Revised underline Starting end underline my general studies classes last spring gave me the opportunity to take classes in my major this fall.
Just because . . . doesn’t mean Constructions. Just because . . . doesn’t mean constructions are common in speech but should be avoided in writing.
Just because underline Just because end underline I want to be a doctor underline doesn’t mean end underline I will get into medical school. Revised Simply wanting to be a doctor doesn’t guarantee admission to medical school. Revised Although I want to be a doctor, I will need to work hard to get into medical school.
The English language is rich and always evolving, offering you many ways and words to express yourself in writing and speech.
English is not one language but many, made up of regional and social dialects. In addition, groups speak using specialized language among themselves that can be difficult for outsiders to understand. As a writer, be aware of the audience for your writing. Use language that your readers will understand directly or from context.
English dialects are distinctive versions of the language used in geographical regions and/or by particular social or ethnic groups. Standard American English, the English spoken by newscasters, is one such dialect, as are African American Vernacular English, Creole, Appalachian English, and others. English dialects have many features in common, but each has particulars of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. (For an in-depth discussion of dialects and academic writing, see Spotlight on … Variations of English .)
Groups of people with similar skills and interests often develop slang that allows them to express ideas quickly and vividly. Slang also signals knowledge about a particular topic, such as meme culture, music, sports, and more. Slang is generally considered too casual for most academic writing, but it may be appropriate for personal essays. In your papers, be aware of your purpose and audience when choosing to use slang. Avoid using slang that your readers are unlikely to understand.
Experts in many professional fields use specialized and technical expressions that allow them to communicate efficiently and clearly with each other. Such language is often incomprehensible for nonexperts and should be avoided in writing for general readers. (For tips on writing about a technical topic for an audience of nonspecialists, see Spotlight on … Discipline-Specific and Technical Language .)
Biased words and expressions exclude or demean people on the basis of gender, sex, sexual orientation, age, ethnicity, social class, or physical or mental traits.
English includes words and expressions that are considered biased based on sex and gender, such as mankind, businessman, chairman, fireman, and so on. These are commonly replaced by gender-neutral words such as humanity, businessperson, chair or chairperson, and firefighter. (See Spotlight on … Bias in Language and Research for more on language bias.)
In addition, the English pronoun he has traditionally been used as the gender-neutral pronoun. For example, the construction A underline doctor end underline should have a caring attitude toward underline his end underline patients was once common but is now widely viewed as gender biased because many doctors are not men. For a discussion of the pronoun he used as the gender-neutral pronoun, see Pronouns .
Be sensitive to labels and stereotypes that may insult a group of people you are writing about. Avoid labels that don’t put people first, such as cancer victim and wheelchair-bound. Don’t make assumptions about entire groups of people that promote stereotypes, such as teenagers are rebellious, elderly people don’t hear well, conservatives are rich, or women are more emotional than men . (See Spotlight on … Bias in Language and Research for more on language bias.)
As a general rule, use plain, direct words in your writing. Avoid reaching for a word that sounds fancy or impressive, especially if you are unsure about the meaning. If you use a word that is only vaguely familiar to you, look it up in a dictionary to ensure you are using it correctly. (You can type the word and “def” to get a definition.) Doing so has the added benefit of building your vocabulary.
The words in the following list are commonly confused or misused by writers. As you write, consult this list or use a reliable online tool, such as Merriam-Webster , to check the meanings and usage of words you’re unsure of. Keep a list of words that cause you trouble as you become aware of them. Then, after you draft a document, do a search for the words on your list. (For a discussion of homonyms, homographs, and homophones, see Editing Focus: Words Often Confused .)
accept, except | means “to receive willingly.” is used mostly as a preposition meaning “excluding.” acceptedend underline all the gifts exceptend underline mine. |
advice, advise | is a noun meaning “guidance.” is a verb meaning “to recommend.” adviceend underline when she advisesend underline me about my college courses. |
affect, effect | The verb a means “to produce a change in.” The noun means “result.” affectedend underline me, but it seemed to have no effectend underline on my roommate. |
all ready, already | means “completely prepared.” means “happened by or before now.” allend underline readyend underline for the trip, but the train had alreadyend underline left. |
all right, alright | is always two words meaning “acceptable” or “satisfactory.” is an informal spelling. |
all together, altogether | means “everyone or everything together.” allend underline togetherend underline for safekeeping. Altogether means “completely” or “entirely.” altogetherend underline incomprehensible. |
allusion, illusion | An is an indirect or implied reference. allusionend underline to the Bible. An creates a false impression of reality. illusionend underline, seeing what you believe instead of what is really there. |
A lot | A lotend underline is always two words meaning “much” or “many.” Alotend underline is a misspelling. |
apart, a part | denotes a separation. apartend underline from each other. A part denotes a segment of something. aend underline partend underline of our family. |
bare, bear | As verbs means “to uncover.” means “to endure.” Bearend underline with me while I bareend underline my soul. |
complement, compliment | means “to add to” or “to complete.” means “to make an approving remark.” complimentend underline the fresh gray paint that complementsend underline the exterior stone on the house. Complimentary also means “free” or “without cost.” complimentaryend underline tickets to the game. |
conscience, conscious | is a noun that refers to the awareness of one’s actions being right or wrong. conscienceend underline. Conscious is an adjective meaning “awake” or “alert.” consciousend underline after hitting her head on the windshield. |
disinterested, uninterested | means “impartial.” means “not interested.” disinterestedend underline party to hear both sides of the disagreement. Unfortunately, she was uninterestedend underline in the dispute. |
elicit, illicit | is a verb meaning “to bring out.” means “unlawful.” elicitedend underline a response from the mayor about the effort to stop demand for illicitend underline drugs. |
emigrate, immigrate | People or leave, one country. They to a new country to live. emigratedend underline from Chile, they immigratedend underline to the United States. |
everyday, every day | is an adjective meaning “common,” “ordinary,” or “used daily.” is a noun phrase meaning “every day.” Everydayend underline tasks are ones you do everyend underline dayend underline, like brushing your teeth and washing dishes. |
farther, further | refers to distance. fartherend underline. Further means “in addition,” “more,” and “to a greater extent” and refers to abstractions like time or amount. furtherend underline. |
fewer, less | refers to items that can be counted. refers to items that cannot be counted: fewerend underline assignments than my roommate, and she has lessend underline time than I do. Cacti need lessend underline water than other plants. |
good, well | is an adjective. goodend underline on you. Well is an adverb. wellend underline. Well is used as an adjective only in reference to health. wellend underline after recovering from the flu. |
imply, infer | means “to suggest.” impliesend underline you’re upset. Infer means “to conclude.” inferend underline from your email that you’re upset. |
its, it’s | is a possessive pronoun. itsend underline tail. It’s is a contraction of “it is” or “it has.” It’send underline my turn. Its followed by an apostrophe is incorrect. |
lay, lie | means “to put or set something down.” layend underline the books on the table. Lie means “to be in or move into a horizontal position” or “to be situated.” lieend underline down and rest my eyes. The towns lieend underline near the waterfalls. Note also that is the past tense of layend underline down to rest my eyes. |
lead, led | The past tense of the verb is The noun (rhymes with ) is the metal. ledend underline a group of tourists past the old leadend underline mine. |
lose, loose | is a verb meaning to “mislay” or “not win.” loseend underline a sock every time I do laundry. These teams never loseend underline their games. Loose means “not tight” or “not secure.” looseend underline shutters may be unsafe in a storm. |
myself, herself, himself, yourself, ourselves, themselves, yourselves | Do not use the pronouns in place of a personal pronoun in an effort to sound more formal: Iend underline [not ] meend underline [not ]. Use the pronouns in the following situations: herselfend underline. She treats herselfend underline to brunch on Sundays. |
peak, peek, pique | means “a highest point” or “to reach a highest point.” peakend underline. Peek means “a secretive look” or “to take a secretive look.” peekedend underline at his birthday gifts. As a verb, means “to spark interest.” piquedend underline her interest in physics. As a noun, also means “irritation.” piqueend underline at her probing questions was obvious. |
precede, proceed | means “to go before.” precedesend underline this one is peak/peek/pique means “to go forward.” proceedend underline. |
prejudice, prejudiced | is a noun that is sometimes used incorrectly in place of , an adjective. prejudicedend underline [not ]. |
principal, principle | has several meanings: “a chief or head, particularly of a school,” “a capital sum of money,” or “first or highest in rank, importance, or value.” refers to a “rule of conduct or action.” principalend underline outlined the principlesend underline behind the code of conduct. The small principalend underline in their savings account is not their principalend underline source of income. |
raise, rise | means “to lift” or “to grow” and always takes an object. raisedend underline her hand to tell the story of how she raisedend underline three children on her own. Rise means “to get up” and does not take an object. risesend underline in the eastern sky. |
set, sit | means “to put” or “to place” and takes an object. setend underline the groceries on the table. Sit means “to be seated” and does not take an object. sitsend underline in the same seat for every class. |
than, then | is used to compare. thanend underline you. Then indicates time. thenend underline we’ll get pizza. |
that, which | is used to introduce information essential to the meaning of a sentence. thatend underline I bought five years ago no longer charges fully. Which is most often used to introduce information that is nonessential to the meaning of a sentence. whichend underline I bought five years ago, no longer charges fully. (For more on nonessential and essential information, see .) |
that, who, which | Use and to refer to things and most animals. thatend underline had escaped was found. Use to refer to people and animals with names. whoend underline treated COVID-19 patients were often called heroes. |
their, there, they’re | is a possessive pronoun. indicates place. is a contraction of “they are.” theirend underline missing cat from that tree over thereend underline; they’reend underline happy to have him back. |
to, too, two | can be a preposition indicating direction. toend underline the pool. Or it can be part of an infinitive (the form of a verb). toend underline swim. Too means “also” or “excessively.” tooend underline? Two is a number. twoend underline times every week. |
unique, unusual | Uniqueend underline means “one of a kind.” Unusualend underline means “uncommon.” Saying that something is more unique than something else is incorrect because something unique cannot be compared. Use instead when comparing. |
weather, whether | refers to the state of the atmosphere. refers to alternatives. Whetherend underline we attend the game in person or watch it on TV depends on the weatherend underline. |
who’s, whose | is the contraction of “who is” or “who has.” Who’send underline going to the game? Whose is the possessive form of “who.” Whoseend underline backpack is this? |
your, you’re | is the possessive form of “you.” is the contraction of “you are.” You’reend underline going to be relieved that I found yourend underline earring behind the desk. |
Point of view refers to the vantage point from which a story, event, report, or other written work is told. The point of view in which you write depends on the genre in which you are writing. For example, you will likely use first person in personal narrative writing. For most academic writing, you’ll use third person. (See Editing Focus: Characterization and Point of View for a related discussion of point of view in narrative writing.)
In the first-person point of view, the writer or narrator ( I, we ) is present in the writing. First person is commonly used in personal writing genres, such as literacy narratives, memoirs, and profiles, as well as in fiction.
After midnight—my paper started, my exam studied for—I leave the library and head back to my apartment. In the dark, I listen closely when I hear footsteps behind me, and I step to the edge of the sidewalk to let a man pass. At my door, I fumble for my key, open the door, turn on the light, and step inside. I am safe, ready to eat, read a bit, and return to my paper.
Second-person point of view is used occasionally when an outsider ( you ) becomes part of a story. It should not be confused with a writer or speaker using “you” when directly addressing an audience ( you ). Nor should it be confused with giving instructions ( drive forward, add one cup of brown sugar, close the door ) or with its similar use in textbooks such as this one. However, second person is not considered appropriate in most academic writing.
Writers often slip into second person when they intend to write in third person. In the example below, the writer starts in third person and shifts by accident to second person. To check your sentences for second person, search your documents for you , and revise as needed.
Shift from Third Person to Second Person The federal government should raise the minimum wage because it has the responsibility to ensure underline people end underline earn a wage underline you end underline can live on. The current minimum wage, $7.25 per hour, is not enough to pay underline rent end underline , let alone support a family. Many people cannot lift themselves out of poverty. A higher minimum wage can help you. Revised The federal government should raise the minimum wage because it has the responsibility to ensure underline workers end underline earn a wage underline they end underline can live on. The current minimum wage, $7.25 per hour, is not enough to pay underline a single person’s end underline rent, let alone support a family. Many people cannot lift themselves out of poverty. A higher minimum wage can help them.
The third-person point of view ( he, she, it, they ) is customary for fiction and for academic writing, such as research papers, reports, visual and textual analysis papers, argumentative essays, and the like. Third-person point of view emphasizes the information instead of the writer.
The hikers and other passive trail users argue that mountain bikes should not be allowed on narrow trails traditionally traveled by foot and horse. underline They end underline point out that the bikes’ wide, treaded tires cause erosion, that the bikers’ high speeds startle hikers and horses, and that underline their end underline presence on trails disrupts the tranquility that hikers and bird watchers seek.
In a sentence, a verb expresses an action, an occurrence, or a state of being.
In many sentences, making the verb agree with the subject is straightforward: underline I end underline underline run end underline every day. My underline sister end underline underline runs end underline every other day. Sometimes our underline brother end underline underline joins end underline us, and underline all end underline of us underline run end underline together. However, subject-verb agreement gets tricky in the following circumstances. (See Editing Focus: Subject-Verb Agreement for more on subject-verb agreement.)
Two or more subjects joined by and take a plural verb in most sentences:
underline Yoga and meditation end underline double underline are end double underline effective activities for relieving stress.
However, when the parts of the subject form a single idea or unit, the verb is singular:
underline Macaroni and cheese end underline double underline is end double underline my favorite meal.
When compound subjects are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the word closest to it:
Either your aunts or your underline mother end underline double underline remembers end double underline where your great-grandmother’s grave is located. Neither the image nor the underline words end underline double underline convey end double underline the message of the advertisement clearly.
The verb must agree with the subject even when words and phrases come between them:
The underline cost end underline of the flights double underline is end double underline prohibitive. A underline box end underline of invitations with stamps and return addresses double underline was end double underline on the desk.
The verb must agree with the subject, even when it comes before the subject:
double underline Are end double underline underline James and Tamara end underline at the front of the line? There double underline were end double underline three underline people end underline ahead of us in line. Under the table double underline are end double underline a underline newspaper end underline and a underline magazine end underline .
An indefinite pronoun is general; it does not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. Most indefinite pronouns take a singular verb, but not all. Those that take a singular verb include anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, and something .
underline Everyone end underline in the class double underline has prepared end double underline a research proposal. underline Nobody end underline among the accused suspects double underline admits end double underline to the crime.
The following indefinite pronouns take a plural verb: both, few many, others, and several.
underline Several end underline of the students in the class double underline have proposed end double underline researching hurricanes. underline Both end underline of the suspects double underline deny end double underline committing the crime.
Several indefinite pronouns take a singular or plural verb depending on whether the word they refer to is singular or plural. These include all, any, enough, more, most, neither, none, and some.
underline Most end underline of the class double underline has proposed end double underline researching a topic related to climate change. ( Most refers to class. ) underline Most end underline of the students in the class double underline have proposed end double underline researching a topic related to climate change. ( Most refers to students. ) underline Neither end underline the students underline nor end underline the teachers double underline have proposed end double underline a field trip. ( Neither/nor refers to students and teachers .)
Collective nouns such as audience, band, class, crowd, family, group, or team can take a singular or a plural verb depending on the context. When the group acts as a single unit, which is the most common construction, use a singular verb:
The underline band end underline double underline rehearses end double underline every day.
When the group acts individually, use a plural verb, or to avoid confusion, add the word members and use a plural verb.
The underline jury end underline double underline do not agree end double underline on a verdict. The underline jury end underline members double underline do not agree end double underline on a verdict.
Some nouns that end in -s , such as athletics, economics, measles, news, physics, politics, and statistics seem plural but are usually regarded as singular in meaning. In most situations, these words take a singular verb:
Day after day, the underline news end underline double underline was end double underline bad. underline Statistics end underline double underline fulfills end double underline a math requirement for many college majors.
When a word like economics, politics, or statistics refers to a specific situation, use a plural verb:
The underline economics end underline of the situation double underline are end double underline hard to comprehend.
Whether singular or plural in form, titles and words used as words take singular verbs:
Directed by Spike Lee, underline Da 5 Bloods end underline double underline centers end double underline around four veterans returning to Vietnam to find the remains of their squad leader and the fortune they hid together. underline Children end underline double underline is end double underline the plural form of child .
Tense expresses the time of a verb’s action—the past, present, or future. Tense comes naturally in speech, but it can be tricky to control in writing. The following guidelines will help you choose the appropriate tense for your writing and use it consistently. (See Editing Focus: Verb Tense Consistency for a related discussion of consistent verb tense.)
Personal experience stories, such as literacy narratives, memoirs, personal essays, or profiles, can be written in either the past or the present tense. Although the most natural way to tell a story about a past experience is to write in the past tense, the present tense can draw readers into the story and give the illusion that the experience is happening as they are reading it. In the following examples, the writer describes driving with her Native American grandfather to a tribal conference. Notice the difference between the past and present tense.
Narrative Writing Using Past Tense I double underline sat end double underline silently next to Grandfather and double underline watched end double underline him slowly tear the thin white paper from the tip of the cigarette. He double underline gathered end double underline the tobacco in one hand and double underline drove end double underline the van with the other. I double underline memorized end double underline his every move as he double underline went end double underline through the motions of the prayer, which double underline ended end double underline when he double underline blew end double underline the tobacco out the window and into the wind. Narrative Writing Using Present Tense I double underline sit end double underline silently next to Grandfather and double underline watch end double underline him slowly tear the thin white paper from the tip of the cigarette. He double underline gathers end double underline the tobacco in one hand and double underline drives end double underline the van with the other. I double underline memorize end double underline his every move as he double underline goes end double underline through the motions of the prayer, which double underline ends end double underline when he double underline blows end double underline the tobacco out the window and into the wind.
Academic disciplines differ in their tense preferences for signal phrases used in formal essays and reports to introduce and discuss evidence. A signal phrase is a verb that tells readers the words or ideas that follow come from another source. Signal phrases include words such as argues, asserts, claims, comments, denies, discusses, implies, proposes, says, shows, states, and suggests. (For more discussion and a more extensive list of signal phrases, see Editing Focus: Integrating Sources and Quotations .)
acknowledges | declares | observes |
admits | endorses | poses |
agrees | explains | posits |
argues | finds | proposes |
asserts | grants | reports |
believes | illustrates | reveals |
claims | implies | says |
comments | insists | shows |
concedes | maintains | states |
concludes | notes | suggests |
thinks | writes |
If you are writing for a course in English, a foreign language, or a related discipline and using MLA documentation style, you generally will use the present tense or the present perfect tense in signal phrases.
Present Tense The film critic Manohla Dargis double underline claims end double underline that . . . Present Perfect Tense The film critic Manohla Dargis double underline has claimed end double underline that . . .
When you are analyzing a work of literature, common practice is to use the literary present tense in discussing both the work of the author and the action that occurs in the work:
Being cool double underline is end double underline key to the lives of the speakers in “We Real Cool,” a poem by Gwendolyn Brooks. Brooks double underline uses end double underline short lines and stanzas in which speakers double underline list end double underline what it means to be cool: dropping out of school, staying out late, playing pool, drinking, carousing, and so on. Being cool double underline unites end double underline the speakers, and they double underline celebrate end double underline their lifestyle, even as they double underline acknowledge end double underline in the final line of the poem that their coolness double underline may cause end double underline them to die young.
(For more on literary present tense, see Editing Focus: Literary Works Live in the Present .)
If you are writing for a course in history, art history, philosophy, religion, or a related discipline in the humanities, you generally will use the present tense or the present perfect tense in signal phrases.
Present Tense The historian Eduardo Galeano double underline argues end double underline that . . . Present Perfect Tense The historian Eduardo Galeano double underline has argued end double underline that . . .
On the other hand, if you are writing for a course in the social sciences, such as psychology, political science, or economics; a course in the natural sciences, such as biology, chemistry, or physics; or a technical field such as engineering, you will generally use past tense or present perfect tense for most signal phrases.
Past Tense The study double underline found end double underline that individuals who identify as transgender . . . (past tense) Present Perfect Tense: Several recent studies double underline have found end double underline that individuals who identify as transgender . . .
Whichever tense you choose, be consistent throughout a piece of writing. You may need to shift tenses to indicate actual changes in time, but the governing tense should remain constant. (See Editing Focus: Verb Tense Consistency for a related discussion of consistent verb tense.)
Inconsistent Blinking back tears, I double underline clutched end double underline my two-year-old son to my chest, double underline kiss end double underline his forehead, and double underline will gather end double underline my things. It double underline is end double underline 2003, and I double underline was end double underline headed to active duty in Iraq with the National Guard. I double underline hug end double underline my spouse, my mom, my dad, my brothers, and my grandma. Then I double underline turn end double underline and double underline climbed end double underline on the bus that double underline takes end double underline me to a future that, in all honesty, double underline was end double underline terrifying to me. Consistent Blinking back tears, I double underline clutched end double underline my two-year-old son to my chest, double underline kissed end double underline his forehead, and double underline gathered end double underline my things. It double underline was end double underline 2003, and I double underline was end double underline headed to active duty in Iraq with the National Guard. I double underline hugged end double underline my spouse, my mom, my dad, my brothers, and my grandma. Then I double underline turned end double underline and double underline climbed end double underline on the bus that double underline would take end double underline me to a future that, in all honesty, double underline was end double underline terrifying to me.
Most verbs are regular and form the past tense and past participle forms by adding -d or -ed.
Some verbs, however, are irregular and form the past tense and participle in another way. Below are a few of the approximately 200 irregular verbs in English. For a comprehensive list of irregular verbs, see this list .
Verbs have three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Mood can be said to indicate a speaker’s attitude or intention.
Use the indicative mood to state a fact or an opinion or to ask a question:
Thousands of women currently double underline serve end double underline in the military. I double underline think end double underline college tuition double underline is end double underline expensive. The weather double underline was end double underline awful for much of the winter but double underline will improve end double underline soon. double underline Have end double underline you double underline submitted end double underline your request for time off?
Use the imperative mood to give instructions and commands. The subject, you , is often implied but not stated:
double underline (You) Use end double underline the online form to request time off. double underline (You) Submit end double underline your request for time off by Friday. double underline You must submit end double underline your request on time.
Use the subjunctive mood to express wishes, suggestions, or requirements or to state hypothetical or unlikely conditions:
The rules state that every member double underline be end double underline present for the vote. I wish you double underline were end double underline here to see the exhibition. The governing board could be more effective if all members double underline were end double underline active. Students who failed the class would have passed double underline had end double underline they double underline completed end double underline all assignments.
A Pronouns is a word used in place of a noun. Some pronouns are I, you, he, she, we, they, who, and everyone . The noun a pronoun replaces or refers to is its antecedent . (See Editing Focus: Pronouns for a related discussion of pronouns.)
A pronoun should refer to a clear and specific antecedent.
Clear Antecedent All nine underline members end underline of the school board voted in favor of changing the district’s mascot. underline They end underline explained their reasoning during the meeting. ( They refers clearly to members. ) Unclear Antecedent In Smith’s essay, underline she end underline explains why many American families have less money saved and more debt than families in the 1970s. Revised In underline her end underline essay, underline Smith end underline explains why many American families have less money saved and more debt than families in the 1970s.
Problems with pronoun reference occur in the following situations:
Vague this, that, which, or it . The pronouns this, that, which, and it should not refer to words expressing an idea, an event, or a situation.
Vague Reference The school board voted to change the district’s mascot without holding special meetings with the public. underline This end underline made some community members angry. ( Are community members angry about the vote or about the lack of special meetings? ) Revised The school board voted to change the district’s mascot without holding special meetings with the public. underline Their decision to avoid public discussion before the vote end underline made some community members angry.
Indefinite it, they, or you . The pronouns it, they, and you should have a definite antecedent in a sentence.
Indefinite it Crittenden explains that mothers are taken for granted and disrespected, even though our society calls underline it end underline the most important job in the world. Revised Crittenden explains that mothers are taken for granted and disrespected, even though our society calls underline motherhood end underline the most important job in the world. Indefinite they Japan has considerable wealth compared to Ireland, but underline they end underline have a low subjective well-being index. Revised Japan has considerable wealth compared to Ireland, but underline Japanese citizens end underline have a low subjective well-being index. Indefinite you The federal government should raise the minimum wage to ensure underline you end underline earn a wage underline you end underline can live on. Revised The federal government should raise the minimum wage to ensure underline workers end underline earn a wage underline they end underline can live on.
In many sentences, making a pronoun agree with its antecedent is straightforward: My underline neighbors end underline gave me the keys to underline their end underline apartment. However, pronoun-antecedent agreement gets tricky in the following circumstances.
Generic nouns refer to a type of person or job someone performs, such as athlete, child, scientist, doctor, or hairdresser. Indefinite pronouns include words such as anyone, each, everyone, everything, many, most, and none.
All generic nouns and most indefinite pronouns are singular in meaning. Traditionally, these words took the singular pronouns he/him/his because English does not have a gender-neutral third-person pronoun that refers to people: Everyone has his own opinion or A doctor needs to show that he cares about his patients.
More recently, writers have been replacing he/him/his or his/her with they/them/their when the person’s gender is unknown or unimportant or when the person has indicated a preference for non-gendered pronouns:
Everyone has underline their end underline own opinion. A doctor needs to show that underline they end underline care about underline their end underline patients.
These plural pronouns are increasingly accepted and intentionally used by writers, teachers, and editors. Many prominent publications and style guides indicate that the plural pronoun should replace binary or singular ones in most cases. If using a plural pronoun does not fit the situation (such as in a paragraph where the pronoun they is also used several times to indicate a group), try rewriting the sentence in either of these ways:
Remove the pronoun. Everyone has underline an end underline opinion. Make the antecedent plural. underline People end underline have their own opinions. underline Doctors end underline need to show that they care about their patients.
Collective nouns such as audience, band, class, crowd, family, group, or team can take a singular or plural pronoun depending on the context. When the group acts as a single unit, which is the most common construction, use a singular pronoun. When the group members act individually, use a plural pronoun. If using the plural sounds awkward, add the word members so that the plural is clear.
The band went through underline its end underline complete playlist. The band loaded underline their end underline instruments on the bus. The band underline members end underline loaded underline their end underline instruments on the bus.
Pronouns have three cases: subjective, objective, and possessive. Pronouns change case according to their function in a sentence.
Subjective case pronouns function as subjects: I, we, you, he/she/it, they, who/whoever :
Antonio and underline I end underline share an apartment downtown in a neighborhood underline we end underline like.
Objective case pronouns function as objects: me, us, you, him/her/it, them, whom/whomever :
The manager gave underline us end underline a tour of the building.
Possessive case pronouns show ownership: my/mine, our/ours, your/yours, his/her/hers/its, their/theirs, whose :
underline Our end underline friends live in the building too.
Pronoun case gets tricky in the circumstances explained below.
Compound subjects use subjective case pronouns. Compound objects use objective case pronouns.
Subjective Case underline Antonio end underline and underline I end underline have occasional disagreements about the dishes. Objective Case Occasional disagreements about the dishes come up between underline Antonio end underline and underline me end underline .
In a comparison, the case of the pronoun indicates which words have been left out:
Antonio cares more about having a clean kitchen than underline I end underline [do]. Sometimes I think Antonio cares more about a clean kitchen than [he cares about] underline me end underline .
Use the subjective case who in place of a subject—whether it is the subject of the sentence or the subject of a clause:
underline Who end underline is going to the concert? (subject of sentence) Give the tickets to underline whoever end underline can use them. (subject of clause) She is the person underline who end underline is best qualified for the job. (subject of clause) She is the person underline who end underline I think is best qualified for the job. (subject of clause; the intervening words “I think” don’t change the subject or verb of the clause)
Use the objective case whom in place of an object, whether it is the object of a verb, preposition, or clause:
I don’t know underline whom end underline to ask. (object of verb) To underline whom end underline should I give the extra concert tickets? (object of preposition) Give the tickets to underline whomever end underline you choose. (object of clause)
Use we with a subject. Use us with an object.
underline We end underline citizens must vote in order to make our voices heard. (subject) Legislators need to hear from underline us end underline citizens. (object)
Use the objective case before and after an infinitive (the to form of a verb: to run, to walk, to eat ):
The agent asked Antonio and underline me end underline to write a review. We agreed to give underline him end underline a positive review.
Generally, use the possessive case of a pronoun before a gerund (the -ing form of a verb used as a noun: gentle underline snoring end underline , elegant underline dining end underline ):
He grew tired of underline their end underline partying late into the night. The rental agreement depends on underline your end underline approving the lease terms.
This section covers the major marks of punctuation: commas, apostrophes, semicolons, colons, periods, question marks, exclamation points, dashes, and parentheses. (For using brackets and ellipses, see Quotations .)
Commas alert readers to brief pauses within sentences.
Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so) joining main clauses:
Businesses in the metropolitan area are growing underline , and end underline unemployment is down. Many job seekers use online sites like Indeed.com underline , but end underline a few still send traditional cover letters and résumés through the mail. A solution must be determined soon underline , or end underline the problem will continue.
Use a comma after an introductory element at the start of a sentence:
underline After class is over , end underline we should get lunch and review our notes. underline Shuffling his feet nervously , end underline he waited for the train. underline However end underline , the circumstances have not changed.
(See Editing Focus: Commas with Nonessential and Essential Information for a related discussion of commas.)
Nonessential information refers to information that is usually not necessary to the basic meaning of a sentence. Nonessential information is set off by commas. In the following sentence, the word original tells readers which labs no longer meet the needs of the teachers and students. The underlined information adds information but does not change the meaning of the sentence and thus is nonessential to the basic meaning:
The original technical education labs underline , which were installed 50 years ago , end underline no longer meet the needs of the teachers and students.
Essential information , on the other hand, is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. In following example, the word original is no longer part of the sentence; the underlined words convey necessary information about the labs:
The technical education labs underline that were installed 50 years end underline ago no longer meet the needs of the teachers and students.
You can test whether information is nonessential by removing the information. If the meaning of the sentence is unchanged, the information is nonessential. If the meaning becomes too general or changes, the information is essential. In the sentence above, only the labs installed 50 years ago, as opposed to other labs, no longer meet the needs of teachers and students. Note, also, the use of which with nonessential information and that with essential information.
Place commas around information that is not essential to the meaning of a sentence:
The entire technology department underline , which consists of nine teachers and five staff members , end underline has contributed to a report on the needed updates to the technical education labs. The technology department chair underline , who teaches welding , end underline wrote the final report. Updates to the labs will begin in June underline , when school is not in session end underline .
Do not place commas around essential information:
According to the technical education teachers, the labs need equipment underline that students are likely to encounter in the workplace end underline . Faculty underline who teach auto mechanics end underline have requested updates to their lab. The teachers are concerned about the labs underline because students are not learning the skills they need end underline . The amount of lab space underline that needs to be updated end underline is substantial. The department has consulted the industry expert underline Stacy James end underline .
For clarity, use a comma between items in a series:
He studied all the notes , emails , memos , and reports related to the data breach.
Be aware, however, that certain style manuals, such as the AP Stylebook, do not use the serial comma, also called the Oxford or Harvard comma.
The sign gave the city’s population as 122 , 887. Nobel Prize winner Toni Morrison died on August 5 , 2019. Diana Wong , M.D. , is a practicing obstetrician. The mailing address for the Smithsonian Institution is 600 Maryland Avenue SW , Washington , D.C. , 20002.
Misplaced commas can make sentences choppy and obscure the intended meaning.
Anyone who was still at the party underline , end underline left when the band stopped playing. The party ended underline , end underline after the band stopped playing.
Some musicians in the band underline , end underline and many of the guests danced until midnight. (compound subject) The band stopped after two hours underline , end underline and took a well-deserved break. (compound verb) Guests enjoyed the music underline , end underline and the dancing. (compound object)
The band played 80s rock underline , end underline punk , and new wave , all night long.
Online reviews say underline , end underline that the band is the best in the area.
An apostrophe has two functions. It indicates possession, and it forms contractions.
Use an apostrophe and -s to indicate possession with a singular noun or an indefinite pronoun:
underline Jack ’ s end underline brother is my underline sister ’ s end underline coworker. In their family, underline everyone ’ s end underline favorite dessert is ice cream.
If the ’s in a singular noun is pronounced, add apostrophe -s :
The underline business ’ s end underline inconsistent hours caused customers to go elsewhere. Los underline Angeles ’ s end underline airport, LAX, is one of the busiest in the United States.
If the ’s is not pronounced in a singular noun, some writers choose to add an apostrophe alone; however, MLA, APA, and Chicago use the apostrophe and s in these cases:
David underline Myers ’ end underline book, The Pursuit of Happiness , was published in 1992. David underline Myers ’s end underline book, The Pursuit of Happiness , was published in 1992.
When the noun is plural and ends in -s , place the apostrophe after the final -s :
American underline households ’ end underline incomes have grown since the 1970s because more women have entered the workforce. These underline families ’ end underline expenses have risen too.
When the noun is plural and does not end in -s, add an apostrophe and -s:
Social underline media ’ s end underline effect on contemporary life cannot be underestimated. During the pandemic, parents’ stress grew as they helped with their underline children ’ s end underline schooling.
Contractions are common in speech and in informal writing. Use an apostrophe in contractions:
When I say I underline can ’ t end underline , I mean I underline won ’ t end underline . underline It ’ s end underline the best option under the circumstances. “ underline You ’ re end underline the best friend anyone can have,” Mikayla said. underline They ’ re end underline driving to their favorite hangout spot.
Apostrophes are not used to form plural nouns, singular verbs, or personal or relative pronouns.
How many hotel underline rooms end underline [not room’s ] should be reserved for the wedding? The Lewises and the Riveras [not Lewis’s and Rivera’s or Lewis’ and Riveras’ ] have confirmed their reservations.
Nikki underline runs end underline [not run’s ] every day. Jamal underline walks end underline [not walk’s ] to work.
The book is underline yours end underline [not your’s ]. The dog was barking and wagging underline its end underline [not it’s ] tail. underline Whose end underline [not who’s ] apartment is this?
The semicolon joins main clauses (a clause that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence). A semicolon is also used to separate items in a series that contain commas.
Use a semicolon to join main clauses that are closely related in meaning and that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so ).
Originally built in 1928, the school had been remodeled multiple times underline ; end underline the result was an architectural mashup.
Use a semicolon to join main clauses that are connected by a transitional word or phrase such as for example, however, therefore, indeed, or after all :
The governor has proposed increased funding to K-12 public schools underline ; however, end underline the legislature must approve the budget.
Use a semicolon between items in a series that contain internal commas:
The candidates for the award are Michael, who won the essay competition ; Sasha, the top debater; and Giselle, who directed several student productions.
A colon introduces lists, summaries, and quotations. A colon also separates titles from subtitles.
A colon can introduce a list:
Successful athletes have the following qualities underline : physical ability, mental toughness, commitment, and optimism end underline .
A colon can also introduce a summary or an explanation, which may or may not be a main clause (a clause that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence):
The team had one goal left before the end of the season underline : to win the state championship end underline .
Book titles often include a subtitle. A colon separates the subtitle from the title:
Forcing the Spring : Inside the Fight for Marriage Equality
A sentence ends with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point.
A period ends declarative (statement) and imperative (command) sentences:
The administration canceled classes . Do not attempt to drive to school this morning .
A question mark ends a direct question and indicates uncertainty in dates:
Where is Times Square ? She asked, “What time is it ? ”
An exclamation point ends an emphatic or emotional sentence:
“What a mess ! ” she blurted out. “Stop ! That hurts ! ” he shouted.
Dashes and parentheses enclose nonessential information in a sentence.
Use a dash or dashes to set off nonessential information, to indicate a contrast or a pause, or to mark a change of direction.
We did not notice the rain at first — it began so softly — but soon we were soaked. Nothing is as exciting as seeing a snowy owl in a winter farm field — except maybe seeing two snowy owls.
Use parentheses to enclose nonessential information such as explanations, asides, examples, and dates.
He graduated with high honors ( magna cum laude ) and found a job immediately. The city of Madison ( home of the University of Wisconsin ) is the state capital of Wisconsin.
Capital letters.
Use capital letters in the following situations.
Many online resources, such as this one , list words that should be capitalized. You can also consult a dictionary, such as Merriam-Webster , to determine whether to capitalize a word.
Titles of books, articles, stories, plays, poems, films, and other works are handled differently depending on the documentation style you are using. The guidelines here follow MLA style.
Capitalize the first and last words in a title and subtitle and other important words. Do not capitalize articles ( a, an, the ), coordinating conjunctions ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so ), or prepositions ( above, with, of, in, through, beyond, under ) unless they are the first or last words in the title or subtitle.
Use italics for long works that are published, produced, or released separately from other works. These include books, long poems, plays, movies, videos, published speeches, periodicals (newspapers, magazines, and academic and professional journals), websites, long musical works, works of visual art, computer software, TV or radio programs and series, and pamphlets.
Put quotation marks around the titles and subtitles of individual shorter works or those that are published or released within larger works. These include articles in periodicals (newspapers, magazines, and academic and professional journals), pages or works on a website, short stories, short poems, essays, songs, episodes of TV or radio programs and series, book chapters, and unpublished speeches.
A quotation reproduces the exact written or spoken words of a person or an author, which may include a group. (See Editing Focus: Quotations for a related discussion of direct quotations and Editing Focus: Integrating Sources and Quotations for help with integrating quotations from sources.)
Put quotation marks around quotations from a written or spoken source.
When quoting the words of a source, introduce quoted material with a signal phrase so that readers know the source and purpose of the quotation. Place the quotation inside double quotation marks. When using parenthetical citations, note that the sentence period comes after the parentheses. If you include the author’s name in your signal phrase, give only the page number in parentheses (first example). If you do not give the author’s name in your signal phrase, give the name in parentheses (second example):
In Walden , Thoreau sets forth one individual’s antidote against the “ lives of quiet desperation ” led by the working class in mid-nineteenth-century America (5).
Walden sets forth one individual’s antidote against the “ lives of quiet desperation ” led by the working class in mid-nineteenth-century America (Thoreau 5).
Abraham Lincoln wrote “ that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth ” in his Gettysburg Address.
When quoting or writing dialogue between speakers, including characters in a fictional work, place their words in double quotation marks, and start a new paragraph for each speaker:
“ It’s good to see you—I guess, ” Brayden said, as Christopher walked up to the door. “ I thought you were gone for good. ” “ I missed you too much, ” Christopher said, looking down at his feet.
Put single quotation marks around a quotation within a quotation, using double quotation marks around the full quotation:
Kennedy writes that after a year of teambuilding work, including improvements in communication, evaluation, and small-group quarterly meetings, morale among staff members “ improved from ‘ average ’ to ‘ excellent ’ ” (17).
Introduce a long quotation (four typed lines in MLA style; 40 or more words in APA style) with a signal phrase that names the author and ends with a colon. Indent this entire block quotation one-half inch. If you quote more than one paragraph, indent the first line of each subsequent paragraph one-half inch. Do not use quotation marks. Note that the sentence period comes before the parenthetical citation:
In her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull-House , reformer Jane Addams recounts vivid stories of child labor:
public domain text The visits we made in the neighborhood constantly discovered women sewing upon sweatshop work, and often they were assisted by incredibly small children. I remember a little girl of four who pulled out basting threads hour after hour, sitting on a stool at the feet of her Bohemian mother, a little bunch of human misery. For even for that there was no legal redress, for the only child labor law in Illinois, with any provision for enforcement, had been secured by the coal miners’ unions, and was confined to the children employed in the mines. (199) end public domain text
When you quote one, two, or three lines from a poem, use the following format, putting quotation marks around the line or group of lines and separating the lines with a slash:
The 17th-century writer Aphra Behn (1640–1689) wrote humorous poems about love and heartbreak, including “Love’s Power,” which opens with “ Love when he Shoots abroad his Darts / Regards not where they light ” (1-2).
When you quote more than three lines from a poem, set them off from your text. Indent the quotation one-half inch, and do not use quotation marks. Note that the sentence period comes before the parenthetical citation.
In the poem “The Character,” Aphra Behn (1640–1689) uses the familiar alternate rhyme scheme, also known as ABAB: Such Charms of Youth, such Ravishment Through all her Form appear’d, As if in her Creation Nature meant, She shou’d a-lone be ador’d and fear’d. (1-4)
When you alter a quotation to fit into your sentence, you must indicate the change you made.
An ellipsis [. . .] indicates that you have omitted words from a quotation. In the example below, the writer omitted words from the middle of the sentence.
In her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull-House , reformer Jane Addams explains that there were no enforceable laws against small children helping their mothers with sweatshop sewing work, and that “the only child labor law in Illinois . . . had been secured by the coal miners’ unions, and was confined to the children employed in the mines” (199).
If you omit the end of a sentence or a complete sentence, include the sentence period:
The author explains as follows: “Damage to the Broca’s area of the brain can affect a person’s ability to comprehend spoken language . . . . A person may understand speech relatively well when the sentence grammar is simple and the content familiar but may struggle when the grammar and content are more complex” (Hollar-Zwick 45).
Use brackets [ ] to indicate a change you have made to a quotation:
Abruzzi cited the study, noting that “ [ t ] he results provide hope to patients [ with muscular dystrophy ] .”
Place the period inside quotation marks if no source is cited:
The meteorologist said, “ Today’s weather will be sunny and mild .”
If you are citing a source in parentheses, place the quotation marks at the end of the quotation, followed by the citation and the sentence period:
In Twenty Years at Hull-House , Jane Addams recalls vivid images of child labor: “ I remember a little girl of four who pulled out basting threads hour after hour, sitting on a stool at the feet of her Bohemian mother, a little bunch of human misery ” (199) .
(See Long Quotations and Poetry Quotations above for exceptions to this rule.)
Commas go inside quotation marks:
“ Tomorrow’s weather will be cool and rainy ,” the meteorologist said.
Colons and semicolons go outside quotation marks:
The sign read “ Closed ”: No more films would be shown at the theater. (Note: Use a capital letter if a complete sentence follows the colon.)
Question marks and exclamation points go inside quotation marks if they are part of the quotation:
“ Would you like a sandwich ?” asked Adelaide.
Question marks and exclamation points go outside quotation marks if they are not part of the quotation:
“I can’t believe you haven’t read “ The Lottery ”!
Although formal differences exist among the conventions for documenting sources, the underlying principle of all documentation systems is the same: When borrowing words, facts, or ideas from someone else, writers must indicate that the material is borrowed. They do this by providing a citation in the text of their paper that points readers to detailed publication information about the source of the material, usually at the end of the paper but sometimes in footnotes. The following examples are in MLA style:
Citation in the Text Describing Martin Luther King, Jr.’s visit to India, underline Isabel Wilkerson end underline notes that King was taken aback by the suggestion that Black Americans were the equivalent of the Dalits in the Indian caste system underline (22) end underline . Works-Cited Entry Wilkerson, Isabel. Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents. Penguin, 2020.
Each discipline has its own authority or authorities that provide rules about issues such as spelling of technical terms, preferred punctuation, and editing mechanics, as well as documentation style. In addition, if you write for publication in a magazine, professional journal, book, or website, the publisher will have a “house” style, which may vary in some details from the conventions listed in the authoritative guidelines for the discipline in which you are writing. Below are the sources of style manuals for various disciplines. Always check with your instructor about which style to use in a class.
languages, literature, philosophy, and some arts | Modern Language Association (MLA) |
social sciences, education, and some other sciences | American Psychological Association (APA) |
history, religion, fine arts, and business | Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) |
life sciences | Council of Science Editors (CSE) |
chemistry | American Chemical Society (ACS) |
physics | American Institute of Physics (AIP) |
journalism | Associated Press (AP) |
medicine | American Medical Association (AMA) |
law | Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation |
The models, listed numerically, provide examples of in-text citations and works-cited entries (MLA). The models themselves are located in Handbook Section 13 (H13).
Poetry and verse plays
Fiction and prose plays
Format of the list of works cited (mla), authors and contributors (mla).
Original work
Reproduction
Personal interview
The models, listed numerically, provide examples of in-text citations and reference entries (APA). The models themselves are located in Handbook Section 14 (H14).
Authors (apa).
Without DOI or URL
Database or print
Video, audio, and other media sources (apa).
MLA style is the preferred form for documenting research sources in English and other humanities disciplines. The following are general features of MLA style:
The instruction in this section follows the MLA Handbook , 8th edition (2016). For more information on MLA style, see this site . For examples of student papers in the textbook using MLA documentation style, see Section 4 in Chapters 5, 7, 9, 12, and 16.
In-text citations feature author names, page numbers, and sometimes titles, depending on what information is available. The Index located in H12 provides a listing of the models that are included below.
When you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, include the last name of the source’s author, if known, in a signal phrase or in parentheses at the end of your sentence. Provide the page or pages on which the original material appeared. Do not include the word page or the abbreviations p. or pp. Use a hyphen [-] to indicate a number range (See Spotlight on … Citation for more on quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing sources):
Becker points out that Joe Biden’s views on same-sex marriage changed during a personal visit to a family while he was vice president (285-86). While he was vice president, Joe Biden’s views on same-sex marriage changed during a personal visit with a family (Becker 285-86).
If you cite two or more works by the same author in your paper, give the title of the specific work in your sentence or a short version of the title in parentheses:
According to Lewis Thomas in Lives of a Cell , many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins (76). According to Lewis Thomas, many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins ( Lives 76). Many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins (Thomas, Lives 76).
See Model 18 for how to cite two works by the same author in the works-cited list.
If you cite a work with two authors, include both authors’ names in a signal phrase or in parentheses:
In the preface to Half the Sky , Kristof and WuDunn explain their focus on the issues of sex trafficking and sex work, violence against women, and maternal mortality (xxi). In the preface to Half the Sky , the authors explain their focus on the issues of sex trafficking and sex work, violence against women, and maternal mortality (Kristof and WuDunn xxi).
For works with more than two authors, give the last name of the first author followed by “et al.”:
Of the survey respondents, twenty-two percent described themselves as concerned about future job prospects (Pronkowski et al. 9).
When authors of different sources have the same last name, include their initials:
Since the legalization of marijuana for recreational use, frequent use among adults has risen (J. T. Greene 21; M. Greene 30).
When no author is given for a work published by a corporation, a government, an organization, or an association, indicate the group’s name in a signal phrase or in parentheses:
The United States Forest Service describes its mission as “sustain[ing] the health, diversity, and productivity of the nation’s forests and grasslands to meet the needs of present and future generations” (8).
When the author of a work is unknown, use the work’s title in a signal phrase or a shortened version of the title in parentheses and a page number if available. Put quotation marks around article titles, and put book or journal titles in italics:
In a pointed 2020 editorial, “Don’t Let the Games Begin,” The New York Times argued that college athletic departments should support public health by canceling sports seasons until athletes and the public were vaccinated. In a pointed 2020 editorial, The New York Times argued that college athletic departments should support public health by canceling sports seasons until athletes and the public were vaccinated (“Don’t Let”).
If you cite only one volume of a multivolume work, give the page number in parentheses. If you cite more than one volume of a multivolume work, give the volume number for each citation before the page number, and follow it with a colon and one space:
Hill notes that Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Adventure of the Dancing Men was first published in the Strand Magazine and later in Collier’s Weekly (1: 332).
When the work has no page numbers, give the author’s name in a signal phrase or in parentheses. If the source has paragraph, chapter, or section numbers, use them with the abbreviations par., ch., or sec. :
Chen reports that the number of Americans seeking help with mental health rose during the pandemic that began in 2020. (ch. 2) The number of Americans seeking help with mental health rose during the pandemic that began in 2020 (Chen, ch. 2).
For an audio or a video recording, give the start and stop times for the segment you are citing shown on the player in hours (if available), minutes, and seconds:
It is well known that maternity leave is available in countries around the world, including Norway, which popularized its policy in a comic YouTube video showing a pregnant woman on skis announcing the start of her one-year paid leave (01:48-02:07).
When you cite a work that is one page long or an entire work, such as a book, website, single-page article, tweet, video, or film, you do not need to cite a page or give a reference number:
In Da 5 Bloods, director Spike Lee connects the Civil Rights movement to the war in Vietnam through the music, montages of the era, and characters’ stories.
When a quotation or any information in your source is originally from another source, try to track down the original source. If you cannot find it, use the abbreviation “qtd. in”:
The group, which has researched global health including access to food, sounded the alarm about a potential “worldwide food crisis” in the early 2000s (qtd. in Sing 32).
For poems, provide line numbers for reference, and include line or lines in the first reference:
In “The Character,” Aphra Behn describes a lovely young woman, starting with her eyes: “Her Eyes all sweet, and languishingly move” (line 4).
Cite verse plays using act, scene, and line numbers, separated by periods: ( Hamlet 4.4.31-39)
When citing a prose literary work available in various editions, provide additional information after the page number, such as the chapter, act, or scene number, for readers who may be consulting a different edition. Use a semicolon to separate the page number from this additional information: (331; ch. 5) or (78; act 2).
When you cite more than one work in parentheses, use a semicolon between them:
Americans who resisted or ignored civil defense are often portrayed as heroic people who chose not to build fallout shelters or as marginalized people who could not afford them (Garrison 57; Mechling and Mechling 109).
When you cite passages from the Bible or another sacred text such as the Qur’an, give the title of the edition you are consulting the first time you refer to it. Then give the book (abbreviate the title if it is longer than four letters), chapter, and verse, separated by periods:
Several times in the New Testament of the Bible, Jesus comments on wealth, telling his disciples, “And again I say unto you, It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God” ( King James Version, Matt. 19.24).
Writers use notes to offer comments, explanations, or additional information that cannot easily be integrated into the rest of a paper. Use notes to cite several sources within a single context if a series of in-text citations will detract from the readability of the text.
The standard ingredients for guacamole include avocados, lemon juice, onion, tomatoes, coriander, salt, and pepper. 1 Hurtado’s poem, however, gives this traditional dish a whole new twist.
1. For variations see Beard 314, Egerton 197, Eckhardt 92, and Kafka 26. Beard’s version, which includes olives and green peppers, is the most unusual.
A note may be placed as a footnote at the bottom of the page on which the in-text citation appears or on a separate page of endnotes at the end of the paper. This should be titled “Notes” or “Endnotes” and appear between the last page of the paper and the works-cited list. Include all sources given in notes in the works-cited list.
Each source cited in the text of your paper refers readers to the list of works cited, a complete list of all the sources you quoted, paraphrased, or summarized. Every source cited in the text of your paper must be included in the works-cited list, and every source in the works-cited list must be cited in the text of your paper.
After the last page of the paper, start a new page with the centered title “Works Cited” at the top. Create an entry for each source using the following guidelines and examples:
Each entry in the list of works cited consists of core elements:
Publication information. Where can the work be found so that others can consult it? Publication information includes the date of publication and any larger work, which MLA calls a “container,” in which a shorter work is published, such as a journal, magazine, newspaper, database, streaming service, and so on.
A note on access dates. Although access dates for online sources are not required, MLA acknowledges that an access date can indicate the version of a source you consulted. If you add an access date, place it at the end of the works-cited entry in this format: “Accessed 4 Apr. 2020.” Ask your instructors whether they require access dates.
Sotomayor, Sonia. My Beloved World. Vintage Books, 2013.
Kristoff, Nicholas D., and Sheryl WuDunn. Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide. Alfred A. Knopf, 2009.
Barlow, David H., et al. Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach. 8th ed., Cengage Learning, 2017.
When you cite two works by the same author, use three hyphens in place of the author’s name, and alphabetize the works by title:
Trethewey, Natasha. Memorial Drive: A Daughter’s Memoir. Ecco, 2020.
---. Native Guard: Poems. Mariner Books, 2007.
Add the editor’s name after the title:
Hemingway, Ernest. Conversations with Ernest Hemingway , edited by Matthew J. Bruccoli, UP of Mississippi, 1986.
Add the translator’s name after the title:
Ferrante, Elena. My Brilliant Friend. Translated by Ann Goldstein, Europa Editions, 2012.
If you are citing the work of the translator, place the translator’s name in the author position:
Goldstein, Ann, translator. My Brilliant Friend. By Elena Ferrante, Europa Editions, 2012.
Add the illustrator’s name after the title. If you are citing the work of the illustrator, place the illustrator’s name in the author position, as shown in the preceding example:
Fasler, Joe. Light in the Dark: Writers on Creativity, Inspiration, and the Artistic Process. Illustrated by Doug McLean, Penguin Books, 2017.
If the author and publisher are not the same, start with the author:
United States Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration. Healthy Living Resource Guide. Government Printing Office, 2020.
If the author and the publisher are the same, give the title of the work in place of the author, and list the organization as the publisher:
MLA Handbook. 8th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2016.
“This Is Who We Are.” U.S. Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Mar. 2019, www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/This-is-Who-We-Are.pdf.
If no author is given, start with the title.
“The Most Beautiful Battalion in the Army.” Grunt Magazine , 1968, pp. 12-15.
Articles, reviews, editorials, and other short works are published in journals, newspapers, and magazines. They appear in print, on databases, and on websites (though often through a paywall). As a student, you are likely to access many articles and other short research sources primarily through databases available through your library.
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal , volume number, issue number, Date of Publication, page numbers. Title of Database , DOI or URL.
Daddis, Gregory A. “Out of Balance: Evaluating American Strategy in Vietnam, 1968–72.” War & Society, vol. 32, no. 3, Oct. 2013, pp. 252-70. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1179/0729247313Z.00000000026.
Daddis, Gregory A. “Out of Balance: Evaluating American Strategy in Vietnam, 1968–72.” War & Society, vol. 32, no. 3, Oct. 2013, pp. 252-70.
Squires, Scot. “Do Generations Differ When It Comes to Green Values and Products?” Electronic Green Journal, no. 42, 2019, escholarship.org/uc/item/6f91213q.
The journal in the example numbers issues only, so no volume number is given.
To cite an article in a weekly or biweekly magazine, give the author, title of the article, title of the magazine, publication date (day, month, year), and page numbers. If you found the article through a database, add the title of the database and a DOI or URL. If you found the article online, add the URL.
Sanneh, Kelefa. “The Color of Money.” The New Yorker, 8 Feb. 2021, pp. 26-31. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=aph&AN=148411685&site=ehost-live&scope=site.
Sanneh, Kelefa. “The Color of Money.” The New Yorker, 8 Feb. 2021, pp. 26-31.
Ferrer, Ada. “My Brother’s Keeper.” The New Yorker, 22 Feb. 2021, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/03/01/my-brothers-keeper.
To cite an article in a monthly or bimonthly magazine, give the author, title of the article, title of the magazine, publication month and year, and page numbers. If you found the article through a database, add the title of the database and a DOI or URL. If you found the article online, add the URL.
Sneed, Annie. “Giant Shape-Shifters.” Scientific American, Sept. 2017, pp. 20-22. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1017-20.
Sneed, Annie. “Giant Shape-Shifters.” Scientific American, Sept. 2017, pp. 20-22.
Stewart, Jamila. “A Look Inside the Black Designers of Canada Initiative.” Essence, July 2020, www.essence.com/fashion/black-designers-of-canada-digital-index/.
To cite a comment on an article, see Model 54.
To cite an article in a newspaper, give the author, title of the article, title of the newspaper, publication date (day, month, year), and the page numbers. If you found the article through a database, add the title of the database and a DOI or a URL. If you found the article online, add the URL.
Krueger, Alyson. “When Mom Knows Best, on Instagram.” The New York Times, 27 Nov. 2019, pp. B1-B4. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType =aph&AN=139891108&site=ehost-live&scope=site.
Krueger, Alyson. “When Mom Knows Best, on Instagram.” The New York Times, 27 Nov. 2019, pp. B1-B4.
Smith, Doug. “They’re Building Affordable Housing for the Homeless—Without Government Help.” Los Angeles Times, 10 Feb. 2021, www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-02-10/theyre-building-affordable-housing-for-the-homeless-without-government-help.
An editorial may or may not have an author’s name attached to it. If it does, give the author’s name first. If it does not, start with the title. In both situations, add the designation Editorial or Letter to the Editor after the title.
“For Better Elections, Copy the Neighbors.” Editorial. The Wall Street Journal, 16 Feb. 2021, www.wsj.com/articles/for-better-elections-copy-the-neighbors-11613518448.
To cite a review of a book, film, television show, or other work, give the name of the reviewer and title of the review, add Review of before the title of work being reviewed, and give the name of the work’s author, director, or creator after the title.
Girish, Devika. “Refocusing the Lens on Race and Gender.” Review of Test Pattern, directed by Shatara Michelle Ford. The New York Times, 18 Feb. 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/02/18/movies/test-pattern-review.html.
Use the following guidelines for books and parts of books, such as a selection from an anthology, an article in a collection, a published letter, and so on.
Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year of Publication.
Wilkerson, Isabel. The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration. Vintage Books, 2010.
Wilkerson, Isabel. The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration. Kindle ed., Vintage Books, 2010.
Add the abbreviation ed. or eds. (if more than one) after the editor’s first name:
Lunsford, Andrea, ed. Reclaiming Rhetorica: Women in the Rhetorical Tradition. U of Pittsburgh P, 1995.
After the author and title of the work, give the title of the anthology or edited collection, name of the editor, publication information, and page numbers of the work:
Royster, Jacqueline Jones. “To Call a Thing by Its True Name: The Rhetoric of Ida B. Wells.” Reclaiming Rhetorica: Women in the Rhetorical Tradition, edited by Andrea Lunsford, U of Pittsburgh P, 1995, pp. 167-84.
When you cite two or more selections from the same anthology or edited collection, list the anthology separately under the editor’s name. In the entries for the selections you cite, include the editor’s name and the page numbers on which the selections appear:
Lipscomb, Drema R. “Sojourner Truth: A Practical Public Discourse.” Lunsford, pp. 227-46.
Royster, Jacqueline Jones. “To Call a Thing by Its True Name: The Rhetoric of Ida B. Wells.” Lunsford, pp. 167-84.
For a book published in an edition other than the first, give the edition number after the title:
Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style, 4th ed., Pearson, 2019.
For a book published in more than one volume, give the total number of volumes after the title:
Klinger, Leslie S. The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes. 2 vols., W. W. Norton, 2005.
Klinger, Leslie S. The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes. Vol. 2, W. W. Norton, 2005.
When each volume of a multivolume set has an individual title, list the volume’s full publication information first, followed by series information (number of volumes, dates). When separate volumes were published in different years, give inclusive dates:
Churchill, Winston S. Triumph and Tragedy. Houghton Mifflin, 1953. Vol. 6 of The Second World War. 6 vols. 1948-53.
However, if the volume you are using has its own title, you may cite the book without referring to the other volumes as if it were an independent publication.
Add the title of the series at the end of the entry:
Thaiss, Christopher. Language across the Curriculum in the Elementary Grades. WAC Clearinghouse, 2011, wac.colostate.edu/books/landmarks/thaiss/. Landmark Publications in Writing Studies.
Give the original publication date after the title and the date the book was republished after the publisher:
Evans, Elizabeth E. G. The Abuse of Maternity. 1875. Arno, 1974.
Give the complete title of the version you consulted followed by the name of the editor and/or translator, the edition, the publisher, and the publication date:
The Bible. Authorized King James Version . Edited by Robert Carroll and Stephen Prickett, Oxford UP, 2008.
The Koran. Translated by N. J. Dawood, rev. ed., Penguin Books, 2015.
Start with the author of the introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword, followed by a description of the work you are citing, such as “Foreword.” Give the author of the work after the title:
Offill, Jenny. Foreword. Mrs. Dalloway, by Virginia Woolf, Penguin Classics, 2021, pp. vii-xiv.
Roosevelt, Theodore. Letter to Upton Sinclair. 15 Mar. 1906. Theodore Roosevelt: Letters and Speeches, edited by Louis Auchincloss, 2004, pp. 310-11.
Killi, Stainer, and Andrew Morrison. “Could the Food Market Pull 3D Printing Appetites Further?” Industry 4.0—Shaping the Future of the Digital World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sustainable & Smart Manufacturing, edited by Paulo Bartolo et al., CRC Press, 2021, pp. 197-203.
Use the following guidelines for works that are published only online and do not have an overarching publication, such as a journal, newspaper, magazine, or database.
Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Short Work.” Title of Website, Publisher, Publication Date, URL.
Shetterly, Margot Lee. “Katherine Johnson Biography.” NASA , 24 Feb. 2020, www.nasa.gov/content/katherine-johnson-biography.
If the source you are citing has no author listed, start with the title. If the page has no title, give the name of the site and a descriptive label, such as “Home page” or “Blog post.”
Blazich, Frank A. “The Cold Morning of the Day After.” Smithsonian Voices , Smithsonian Magazine, 5 Feb. 2021, www.smithsonianmag.com/blogs/national-museum-american-history/2021/02/05/cold-morning-day-after/.
Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Yale U, 2021, beinecke.library.yale.edu/.
If the website lists an editor, give the person’s name as you would an author, followed by a comma and ed.
“Coronavirus.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 22 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus.
Social media include posts made to various platforms and forums, comments made by individuals to posts, and online articles.
Author. “Text of untitled post” or “Title of post” or Descriptive label. Title of Site , Date of Post, Time of Post, URL.
@Holleratcha (James Holler). “People go out and vote tomorrow!” Twitter, 2 Nov. 2020, 2:08 p.m., twitter.com/holleratcha/status/1270432672544784384.
Death Valley National Park. “What does it mean to protect something you love?” Facebook, 23 Feb. 2021, 5:01 p.m., www.facebook.com/DeathValleyNPS/posts/4108808255810092.
See Model 54 for how to cite a comment.
@Duckpond318. “Turkeys in the arboretum.” Reddit, 15 Mar. 2021, 11:22 a.m., www.reddit.com/r/Wildlife/comments/lqlbo3/turkeys_in_the_arboretum/. Accessed 4 Feb. 2021.
AKJersey. Comment on “Can We Stop Fighting about Charter Schools?” The New York Times, 22 Feb. 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/02/22/opinion/charter-schools-democrats.html#commentsContainer.
Use the following guidelines to cite email, text messages, and letters that you sent or received.
Roberts, Jeffrey. “Study results.” Received by Kenneth Berg, 21 Oct. 2020.
Igoe, Beverlee. Text message. Received by Alison McGrath, 2 Apr. 2020.
Atwood, Margaret. Letter to the author. 11 Mar. 2007.
Use the following guidelines to cite various media sources.
Begin with the title, followed by the director, the studio, and the year released.
Casablanca. Directed by Michael Curtiz, Warner Brothers, 1942.
You may also cite other contributors and their roles after the title (as illustrated below). If your paper is concerned with a particular person’s work on a film, such as the director, an actor, or someone else, begin with that person’s name and arrange all other information accordingly. For a film you stream, add the title of the streaming service and the URL:
Moonlight. Directed by Barry Jenkins, performances by Mahershala Ali, Naomie Harris, and Trevante Rhodes. A24, 2016. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80121348?trackId=13752289&tctx=8%2C.
NASA. “Apollo 11 Moonwalk – Original NASA EVA Mission Video.” 20 July 1969. YouTube, 17 July 2014, www.youtube.com/watch?v=S9HdPi9Ikhk.
The Good Place. Michael Schur, creator. NBC, 2016-20.
Streamed TV episode
“Jason Mendoza.” The Good Place, season 1, episode 4, NBC, 2016. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80191852?trackId=13752289&tctx=%2C%2C.
XOFLUZA. Flu medication advertisement. The New Yorker, 8. Feb. 2021, pp. 5-6.
General Motors. “Will Ferrell Super Bowl Ad.” YouTube, 3 Feb. 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdsPvbSpB2Y&t=24s.
Davis, Jim. “Garfield.” Cartoon. Courier [Findlay, OH], 17 May 1996, p. 18.
If the source you cite appears in a local newspaper, as it does here, give the city and state in brackets after the name of the newspaper if the city is not part of the newspaper’s name.
Gauld, Tom. “Waiting for Godot to Join the Zoom Meeting.” You’re All Just Jealous of My Jetpack, 31 Jan. 2021, myjetpack.tumblr.com/.
Rivera, Diego. Detroit Industry Murals. 1932-33. Detroit Institute of Art.
If the city is not part of the name of the museum, add it after museum. For example, if the work you viewed was at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, you would end the entry as follows: Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Neel, Alice. Elenka. 1936. Alice Neel: People Come First, by Kelly Baum and Randall Griffey, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2021, p. 142.
Basquiat, Jean-Michel. Untitled. 1983. Museum of Modern Art, www.moma.org/collection/works/63997?artist_id=370&page=1&sov_referrer=artist. Accessed 24 Sept. 2020.
Everglades National Park. National Geographic Society Maps, 2019.
“Map: Expedition of Lewis and Clark.” National Park Service, 2 Jan. 2018, nps.gov/subjects/travellewisandclark/map.htm.
Sound recordings include songs, albums, and spoken word. If you stream a sound recording or watch a performance online, add the name of the streaming service, such as Spotify, Apple Music, or Amazon Music, after the date. If you access the recording online, add the name of the website and the URL after the date.
Prince. Purple Rain. Warner Brothers, 1984.
The Supremes. “Baby Love.” Where Did Our Love Go, Motown, 1964. Spotify.
Gorman, Amanda. “The Hill We Climb.” 20 Jan. 2021, YouTube, www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZ055ilIiN4.
The Road to Higher Ground. Hosted by Jonathan Overby. WPR, 9 Jan. 2021.
If you listened to the radio program online, add the URL after the date.
McEvers, Kelly, host. “This Is Not a Joke.” Embedded, season 9, episode 2, NPR, 7 Nov. 2019, Apple Podcasts.
If you listened to the podcast on the web, add the URL instead of the podcast service.
Wilkerson, Isabel. Interview. Fresh Air, NPR, 4 Aug. 2020.
Sowell, Thomas. Interview. Hoover Institution , 3 Jan. 2015, www.wsj.com/video/uncommon-knowledge-thomas-sowell-basic-economics/51837CB6-9FF2-305AE55D179A.html.
Wong, Diana. Personal interview. 12 Sept. 2020.
Houser, Dan, et al., writers. Grand Theft Auto V. Rockstar Games, 2013. Xbox 360.
Diaz, Shanna. “Your Dazzling Brain: The Symphony of Sleep.” Community Lecture Series, University of New Mexico Health Science and the City of Albuquerque, 13 Mar. 2018, Albuquerque Academy.
Hamilton. By Lin-Manuel Miranda, directed by Thomas Kail, 11 Mar. 2018, CIBC Theater, Chicago.
If you watch a video of a performance online, cite it as you would cite an online video.
Mucklestone, Ada. Letter to Maj. Gen. Ralph J. Olson. 6 Nov. 1958. Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison, Alphabetical Subject File, 1950-66, 1715, Box 13.
Park, Eun Jung. Korean American Artists and the 1992 Los Angeles Riots. 2013. U of California, San Diego, PhD dissertation. ProQuest, www.proquest.com/doc-view/1425303659.
Boothby, Daniel W. The Determinants of Earnings and Occupation for Young Women. 1978. U of California, Berkeley, PhD dissertation.
“Facts about Fallout.” Civil Defense Administration, 1961.
Follow your instructor’s formatting guidelines or those indicated here. For sample papers with MLA format and works-cited pages, visit this site .
Disciplines in the social sciences—psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, economics, social work, and often education—use the APA name-and-date system of documentation. APA style highlights authors and dates of publication because timeliness of published material is of primary importance in these disciplines. The following are general features of APA style:
The instruction in this section follows the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition (2020). For more information on APA style, visit this site . For examples of student papers in the textbook using APA documentation style, see Section 4 in Chapters 6, 8, and 15.
In-text citations feature author names, dates of publication, and page numbers, depending on what information is available. The Index located in H12 provides a listing of the models that are included below.
When you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, include the last name of the source’s author, if known, in a signal phrase or in parentheses at the end of your sentence. Give the publication date after the author’s name. Provide the page or pages on which the original material appeared preceded by p. or pp. See Spotlight on … Citation .
According to Thomas (1974), many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins (p. 76). Many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins (Thomas, 1974, p. 76).
If you cite two or more works by the same author, published in the same year, use letters after the year to distinguish them: (Gallivan, 2019a, 2019b, 2019c).
Smith and Hawkins (1990) confirmed that bacteria producing exotoxins are harmful to humans (p. 17). The study confirmed that bacteria producing exotoxins are harmful to humans (Smith & Hawkins, 1990, p. 17).
The results indicate that alcohol use rose during the period of the study (Dominic et al., 2021, p. 16).
When authors of different sources have the same last name, include their initials: Since the legalization of marijuana for recreational use, frequent use among adults has risen (J. T. Greene, 2019, p. 21; M. Greene, 2020, p. 30).
When authors of the same source have the same name, do not include their initials: (Kim & Kim, 2018, p. 47).
When citing a well-known organization, government agency, corporation, or association, introduce an abbreviation of the name in the first reference and use it in subsequent references:
On multiple occasions, the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA, 2018) reported that formal efforts to reintegrate combat veterans into civilian life were beneficial.
When the author of a work is unknown, use the work’s title in a signal phrase, or put the title in parentheses. Put quotation marks around article titles, and put book or journal titles in italics:
In a pointed editorial, The New York Times argued that college athletic departments should support public health by canceling sports seasons until athletes and the public were vaccinated (”Don’t Let the Games Begin,” 2020). In its pointed editorial, “Don’t Let the Games Begin” (2020), The New York Times argued that college athletic departments should support public health by canceling sports seasons until athletes and the public were vaccinated.
When you cite more than one work in parentheses, put the works in the same order that they appear in your list of references, and use a semicolon between them:
Americans who resisted or ignored civil defense were later cast as heroic people who chose not to build fallout shelters or as marginalized people who could not afford them (Garrison, 2006; Mechling & Mechling, 1991).
If the work you are citing has no page numbers, help readers find the quotation by providing a heading, a section name, and/or a paragraph number (using the abbreviation para. or paras. ):
According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH, 2019), research on PTSD includes gene research and brain imaging technologies (Next Steps for PTSD Research section, para. 6).
For audio or visual works, give the time stamp of the beginning of the source: (Wong, 2020, 34:16).
When a quotation or any information in your source is originally from another source, try to track down the original source. If you cannot find the original, use the words “as cited in”:
The research collective, which has studied global health including access to food, sounded the alarm about a potential “worldwide food crisis” in the early 2000s (as cited in Sing, 2018, p. 32).
When you cite an entire work, you do not need to give a page number. See Models 79 and 80. When you mention an entire website, link to the website directly or give the URL. You do not need to include the website in the references list:
The Department of Veterans Affairs maintains a website for PTSD, which contains resources and help for families and healthcare providers as well as veterans (https://www.ptsd.va.gov/).
Because personal communications such as emails, letters, personal interviews, and the like cannot be found by other researchers, cite them in the text only:
During our interview, Morales explained that she had quit her job to help her children with their schooling (personal communication, January 4, 2021).
Each source cited in the text of your paper refers readers to the list of references, a complete list of all the sources you quoted, paraphrased, or summarized. Every source cited in the text of your paper must be included in the references list, and every source in the references list must be cited in the text of your paper.
After the last page of your paper, start a new page with the centered, boldfaced title References at the top. Create an entry for each source using the following guidelines and examples.
Each entry in the list of references consists of core elements:
Sometimes core elements are unknown or missing. In such cases, the entry in the reference list entry must be adapted:
A note on retrieval dates: APA recommends adding a retrieval date for sources that are not archived or are likely to change over time, such as a developing news story. If you add a retrieval date, place it at the end of the references entry in this format: “Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com.” Ask your instructors if they require retrieval dates.
Give the author’s last name, comma, and first and middle initials if available. For works with more than one author, put a comma and an ampersand (&) before the final author’s name, even when there are two authors.
Milanovic, B. (2016). Global inequality: A new approach for the age of globalization. Harvard UP.
Kristoff, N. D., & WuDunn, S. (2009). Half the sky: Turning oppression into opportunity for women worldwide. Alfred A. Knopf.
Provide last names and initials for up to and including 20 authors.
Barlow, D. H., Durand, V. M., & Hofmann, S. G. (2017). Abnormal psychology: An integrative approach. Cengage Learning.
For more than 20 authors, include the first 19 authors’ names, insert an ellipsis, and then add the final author’s name.
Works published by organizations often have the same author and publisher, which is frequently the title of a website. When the author and publisher are not the same, give the author and the title of the website:
National Institute of Mental Health. (2020). Post-traumatic stress disorder. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml.
When the author and the publisher or title of the website are the same, omit the latter:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, February 17). Variants of the virus. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/variants/index.html.
If no author is given, start with the title:
The most beautiful battalion in the army. (1968). Grunt magazine, 12-15.
List two or more works by the same author (or the same author team listed in the same order) chronologically by year in the reference list, with the earliest first. Arrange works published in the same year alphabetically by title, placing lowercase letters after the publication dates:
Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Bandura, A. (1977a). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
Bandura, A. (1977b). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.
Articles, reviews, editorials, and other short works are published in journals, newspapers, and magazines, and they appear in print, on databases, and on websites (though often through a paywall). As a student, you are likely to access many articles and other short research sources primarily through databases available through your library.
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Date of Publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, Volume (number), Pages. DOI or URL.
Gawande, A. A. (2017, April). It’s time to adopt electronic prescriptions for opioids. Annals of Surgery, 265 (4), 693-94. https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0000000000002133
Squires, S. (2019). Do generations differ when it comes to green values and products? Electronic Green Journal, 42 . http://escholarship.org/uc/item/6f91213q
The online journal in the example numbers issues only, so no volume number or page numbers are given.
Lowther, M. A. (1977, Winter). Career change in mid-life: Its impact on education. Innovator, 8 (7), 9-11.
An older journal article you consult in print may not have a DOI. In that case, end with the page numbers.
For a magazine article you read on a database or online, give the DOI if the article has one; otherwise give the URL. For a magazine article you consulted in print, end the entry after the page number unless a DOI is provided.
Sneed, A. (2017, September 19). Giant shape-shifters. Scientific American, 317 (4), 20. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1017-20
Sneed, A. (2017, September 19). Giant shape-shifters. Scientific American, 317 (4), 20.
Myszkowski, S. (2018, October 10). On the trail of missing American Indian women. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2018/10/trail-missing-american-indian-women/571657/
For a newspaper article that you read on a database or in print, end the entry after the page numbers. For a newspaper article that you read online, give the URL instead of page numbers.
Krueger, A. (2019, November 27). When mom knows best, on Instagram. The New York Times, B1-B4.
Healy, J. (2021, January 12). Tribal elders are dying from the pandemic, causing a cultural crisis for American Indians. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/12/us/tribal-elders-native-americans-coronavirus.html
Blazich, F. A. (2021, February 5). The cold morning of the day after. Smithsonian Voices. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/blogs/national-museum-american-history/2021/02/05/cold-morning-day-after/
Beard, A. (2013, May). Life’s work: An interview with Maya Angelou. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2013/05/maya-angelou
An editorial may or may not have an author’s name attached to it. If it does, give the author’s name first. If it does not, start with the title. In both situations, add Editorial or Letter to the Editor in square brackets after the title.
For better elections, copy the neighbors [Editorial]. (2021, February 16). The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/for-better-elections-copy-the-neighbors-11613518448
To cite a review of a book, film, television show, or other work, begin with the reviewer’s last name, followed by the first and middle (if any) initials. In parentheses, add the year, followed by the title, month, and day of the review. Then in square brackets, add Review of the and the type of work being reviewed, followed by the title and the name of the author, director, or creator and their role. Then give the publication in which the review appeared, ending with a period, and the URL:
Girish, D. (2021, February 18). Refocusing the lens on race and gender [Review of the film Test Pattern, by S. M. Ford, Dir.]. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/18/movies/test-pattern-review.html
Use the following guidelines for books and parts of books, such as a selection from an anthology, a chapter in a collection, a published conference paper, and so on.
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year of Publication). Title of book. Publisher.
Aronson, L. (2019). Elderhood: Redefining aging, transforming medicine, reimagining life. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Use the same format for an e-book when the content is the same. If you consult a book that has a DOI, provide it after the publisher, using the format “https://doi.org/” followed by the number. (If you encounter older formats for DOI, change them to this format.) If you read a book online, give the URL.
Schaefer, C. E., & Reid, S. E. (Eds.). (2001). Game play: Therapeutic use of childhood games (2nd ed.) . Wiley.
Burks, H. F. (2001). Using the imagine game as a projective technique. In C. E. Schaefer & S. E. Reid (Eds.), Game play: Therapeutic use of childhood games (2nd ed., pp. 39-66). Wiley.
Freud, S. (1950). The interpretation of dreams (A. A. Brill, Trans.). Modern Library. (Original work published 1900)
Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (2019). The elements of style (4th ed.). Pearson.
Waldrep, T. (Ed.). (1988). Writers on writing (Vol. 2). Random House.
National Institute of Mental Health. (2020). Post-traumatic stress disorder. U.S. Department of Health and Human Service, National Institutes of Health.
If you consulted the publication online, include the URL after the publisher. See Model 89.
Killi, S., & Morrison, A. (2021). Could the food market pull 3D printing appetites further? In J.D. da Silva Bartolo, F. M. da Silva, S. Jaradat, & H. Bartolo (Eds.), Industry 4.0—shaping the future of the digital world: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sustainable & Smart Manufacturing (pp. 197-203). CRC Press.
Use the following guidelines for works published only online that do not have an overarching publication, such as a journal, newspaper, or magazine.
Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Publication Date). Title of work. Title of website. URL.
Shetterly, M. L. (2020, February 24). Katherine Johnson biography. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/content/katherine-johnson-biography
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. (n.d.). What is PTSD? National Center for PTSD. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand/what/index.asp
If the source you are citing has no author listed, start with the title. See Model 90.
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When you cite a social media post as a source, use labels in square brackets to indicate the type of post and whether images were attached to it.
Holler, J. [@holleratcha]. (2020, November 2). Everyone get out and vote tomorrow! [Tweet]. Twitter. http://twitter.com/holleratcha/status/1270432672544784384
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When you cite nonprint sources, such as visual and multimedia sources, use labels in square brackets to indicate the type of source, such as a film, a TV episode, a song, a painting, a photograph, and so on.
When you cite a film that you saw in a theater or streamed, you do not need to specify how you watched it.
Jenkins, B. (Director). (2016). Moonlight [Film]. A24.
For an online video, give the name of the person or organization that uploaded it as the author:
TED. (2017, February 27). Sue Klebold: My son was a Columbine shooter. This is my story [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXlnrFpCu0c
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For an artist whose music is available only through a website, include the URL. If the artist’s music is available on multiple platforms, you do not need to specify how you accessed it.
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For a work of visual art, give the location of the museum or gallery. If you saw the work online, add the URL after the location:
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Basquiat, J-M. (1983). Untitled [Painting]. Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY, United States. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/63997?artist_id=370&page=1&sov_referrer=artist
If the work you consulted names an author, start with the author. If there is no author, start with the title and a description of the work in square brackets, such as [Map], [Photograph], [Infographic], [Diagram], or another appropriate descriptor:
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Benzies, L., & Sarwar, I. (2017). Grand theft auto V [Video game]. Rockstar Games. https://www.rockstargames.com/games/V
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There was a class at my university called Black Arts, Black Power. Lester Fabian Brathwaite’s “Rage” would fit snugly right into that syllabus.
With an extensive writing portfolio already under his belt working for publications like “Out,” Brathwaite's debut book is part memoir, part academic review of culture and society, part philosophical musings of a queer Black millennial man who was born in Guyana and grew up in New York. It fits comfortably alongside the works of other greats to whom it pays homage, like Huey P. Newton, James Baldwin and Nina Simone — the latter being apparent by the book's full title: “Rage: On Being Queer, Black, Brilliant ... and Completely Over It."
No doubt Brathwaite is a great writer, but he’s also a great thinker.
In a chapter largely focused on muscular dysmorphia, he makes a shockingly persuasive — if bracingly cavalier — argument for bodily autonomy that invokes trans rights, women’s rights, drug use and bodybuilding.
“Rage” is conceptually heavy and multilayered, but with casual syntax and regular use of pop icons and common people, places and things as touchstones. At the same time, there’s a touch of high-brow, with several literary references and famous turns of phrases thoughtfully employed to bring new light to old ideas — and sometimes turn an idea on its head.
With a teaspoon of empathy and an open mind, you’ll find that any differences between the author and the reader melt away because the heart of what Brathwaite is saying is universal.
That said, “Rage” is anything but demure. The Table of Contents is peppered with profanities and even a chapter titled “I Hate the Gays.” Readers will either be turned off here before ever buying the book, or tempted to know more about this self-described “hateful child who grew into an even more hateful adult” — said, like most reflections in the book, with a protective layer of comedy around a kernel of truth.
But being off-putting is part of Brathwaite’s shtick, one readers have not only allowed but praised time and again with arguably more upsetting works (looking at you, “Lolita”).
Still, the writing can admittedly be annoyingly abrasive, like with its overuse of the f-slur and other choices that I personally didn’t love. But in the end, Brathwaite really grew on me. He wholeheartedly owns these pieces of himself. He reclaims words and is ready to live wildly, make mistakes and then grow from them.
And the tender moments hit harder for it, whether Brathwaite is describing his mother’s burial on his 14th birthday or the fifth-grade teacher who took him to Boston for being her top student.
Is “Rage” a little thick? Yes, at times, for sure. But it’s more like academic-lite, broken up with comedic relief, romantic exploits and, as Brathwaite loves to say, debauchery. If you find the starting pace a bit slow, rest assured it ramps up — quickly.
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COMMENTS
Write a scene that puts a character or characters from a fairy tale in a different situation. 54. Writing the Stream. Write a piece using the stream-of-consciousness technique. 55. Dear Diary. Write a diary entry or a letter from your character's point of view. 56. Earth Day. Write a scene set in a universe in which the inhabitants take good ...
What do you find "awesome"? Just like the author of The Book of Awesome, you are to find one small and simple thing which is worthy of analysis, descr iption, and praise. Try to focus on the small things that make our lives a little br ighter. Your "awesome" thing must follow the format of The Book of Awesome (title of the awesome thing ...
Take the 30-Day Creative Writing Challenge. Press the GENERATE button above. (If it doesn't work, refresh the page.) The text box will generate a short creative writing prompt or topic you can write about today. (If you can't see the whole line, use your cursor to highlight the text and keep scrolling to the right.)
Here's how our contest works: every Friday, we send out a newsletter containing five creative writing prompts. Each week, the story ideas center around a different theme. Authors then have one week — until the following Friday — to submit a short story based on one of our prompts. A winner is picked each week to win $250 and is highlighted ...
And then I started making up my own prompts. The result: 1200 Creative Writing Prompts, a book designed to spark ideas for writers. Creative Writing Prompts. Today I'd like to share a mash-up of creative writing prompts, all of which come from 1200 Creative Writing Prompts. There are no rules. Write a poem. Write a short story. Write an essay.
Description. Student love the humorous captions in the Book of Awesome! Read some selections from the book aloud to your class and then spend some time developing their ability to "shadow write", that is, model the voice of Pasricha to create their own captions for things they think are awesome. We used this template to publish a finished ...
Creative Writing Prompts Can Boost Your Writing Skills. Using writing prompts can boost your creativity and improve your writing skills in a number of ways by: Helping to overcome writer's block. Exercising your imagination. Increasing your rate of practice. Teaching you more about yourself.
This book promises 1,000 awesome prompts and that's pretty well what it delivers. There is little actual text, most of the book consisting of the prompts themselves, but what there is is well and sensibly written, and the uses of the various types of prompts are clearly explained, without any hint of the patronising tone that often mars writers' toolbooks.
Discover endless possibilities with our curated selection of 400+ writing prompts. Ignite your creativity and turn your ideas into captivating stories.
This assignment is a great accompaniment final assignment to The Book of Awesome. Students can show an understanding of the text structure through their own creative writing and presentation using Adobe Spark. This assessment is aligned with the Saskatchewan Curriculum ELA 30B.
3. MY LIFE IN TEXTURES. Another creative writing assignment idea is to have students write a personal narrative inspired by the memories of three textures. The feeling of the sand between your fingers at a certain beach you'd visit as a child, squishing Play-Doh between your fingers, or even cookie crumbs on your hands at grandma's house.
Looking to bring GRATITUDE into your class and CELEBRATE AWESOME-NESS? This is the assignment for you! My students loved it!! I had to adjust it so they could write two articles because we found so many things to celebrate and so much awesomeness in our daily lives. What's included: - Editable title page for a class book - An intro to the book ...
5. Alternate Ending. The Assignment: Select a well-known piece of literature that you have studied in English class, and rewrite the ending! Try to make the ending ironic or humorous, and share your new story ending with the class! You can also leave out character names and see if the class can guess the title of the story you altered!
Tip 3: Plan Your Work. Effective planning is a cornerstone of assignment writing. Develop a structured plan that includes creating a timeline for your assignment. Break down the work into smaller tasks, allocate sufficient time for research, outlining, drafting, and proofreading. A well-organized plan will keep you on track and reduce stress.
In this article, I will break down the major steps of novel writing into manageable pieces, organized into three categories — before, during, and after you write your manuscript. How to write a novel in 13 steps: 1. Pick a story idea with novel potential. 2.
It is a fantasy, but the book draws inspiration from the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Rape of Nanking. Crime Fiction Lover reviews Jessica Barry's Freefall, a crime novel: In some crime novels, the wrongdoing hits you between the eyes from page one. With others it's a more subtle process, and that's OK too.
Find this assignment with the Task Cards as part of The Ultimate Novel Study Bundle: 50 Projects and Assignments for ANY NOVEL. ... For this activity, students write three headlines for a preselected book that reveal key elements such as plot, character, and setting. They should try to find unique angles into the story that would catch ...
Common Writing Assignments. These OWL resources will help you understand and complete specific types of writing assignments, such as annotated bibliographies, book reports, and research papers. This section also includes resources on writing academic proposals for conference presentations, journal articles, and books.
Writing Assignments Kate Derrington; Cristy Bartlett; and Sarah Irvine. Figure 19.1 Assignments are a common method of assessment at university and require careful planning and good quality research. Image by Kampus Production used under CC0 licence. Introduction. Assignments are a common method of assessment at university and require careful planning and good quality research.
Grading Writing Online vs. Grading on Paper: Pros and Cons. FREEBIES, Reading & Writing, The Writing Process, Writing Assignments, Writing Mini-lessons, Writing Workshop argument, persuasive essay, persuasion, rhetorical, rhetoric. Engage your students with these meaningful writing activities that can be used with any novel or picture book read ...
3. Author's Purpose Game. A great interactive author's purpose activity! After your kids have picked their piece, spin the spinner and determine why the author wrote their short story. If they guess right, they get to move ahead. If they're wrong, they go back to the number of spaces they spun.
The first Book of Awesome in a decade returns against a backdrop of algorithm-infused addictions, widening wealth gaps, destabilizing senses of reality, and reductions in privacy and freedoms. The past two years have brought us to a breaking point. The National Institute of Mental Health reported 13% of people had a depressive symptom before ...
The third chunk of the wordy sentence comes at the end. Notice how papers, reports, paragraphs, and sentences you write for college assignments is reduced to your college writing. The meaning, although expanded to all writing, remains the same. The following phrases are common fillers that add nothing to meaning. They should be avoided.
With an extensive writing portfolio already under his belt working for publications like "Out," Brathwaite's debut book is part memoir, part academic review of culture and society, part philosophical musings of a queer Black millennial man who was born in Guyana and grew up in New York.