define research methodology meaning

Techniques or tools used for gathering research data include:

SAGE research methods

• SAGE research methods online This link opens in a new window Research methods tool to help researchers gather full-text resources, design research projects, understand a particular method and write up their research. Includes access to collections of video, business cases and eBooks,

Help and Information

• Next: Finding qualitative research >>
• Last Updated: Aug 19, 2024 3:39 PM
• URL: https://libguides.newcastle.edu.au/researchmethods

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Methods – Types, Examples and Guide

Research Methods – Types, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methods

Definition:

Research Methods refer to the techniques, procedures, and processes used by researchers to collect , analyze, and interpret data in order to answer research questions or test hypotheses. The methods used in research can vary depending on the research questions, the type of data that is being collected, and the research design.

Types of Research Methods

Types of Research Methods are as follows:

Qualitative research Method

Qualitative research methods are used to collect and analyze non-numerical data. This type of research is useful when the objective is to explore the meaning of phenomena, understand the experiences of individuals, or gain insights into complex social processes. Qualitative research methods include interviews, focus groups, ethnography, and content analysis.

Quantitative Research Method

Quantitative research methods are used to collect and analyze numerical data. This type of research is useful when the objective is to test a hypothesis, determine cause-and-effect relationships, and measure the prevalence of certain phenomena. Quantitative research methods include surveys, experiments, and secondary data analysis.

Mixed Method Research

Mixed Method Research refers to the combination of both qualitative and quantitative research methods in a single study. This approach aims to overcome the limitations of each individual method and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic. This approach allows researchers to gather both quantitative data, which is often used to test hypotheses and make generalizations about a population, and qualitative data, which provides a more in-depth understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals.

Key Differences Between Research Methods

The following Table shows the key differences between Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Research Methods

Examples of Research Methods

Examples of Research Methods are as follows:

Qualitative Research Example:

A researcher wants to study the experience of cancer patients during their treatment. They conduct in-depth interviews with patients to gather data on their emotional state, coping mechanisms, and support systems.

Quantitative Research Example:

A company wants to determine the effectiveness of a new advertisement campaign. They survey a large group of people, asking them to rate their awareness of the product and their likelihood of purchasing it.

Mixed Research Example:

A university wants to evaluate the effectiveness of a new teaching method in improving student performance. They collect both quantitative data (such as test scores) and qualitative data (such as feedback from students and teachers) to get a complete picture of the impact of the new method.

Applications of Research Methods

Research methods are used in various fields to investigate, analyze, and answer research questions. Here are some examples of how research methods are applied in different fields:

• Psychology : Research methods are widely used in psychology to study human behavior, emotions, and mental processes. For example, researchers may use experiments, surveys, and observational studies to understand how people behave in different situations, how they respond to different stimuli, and how their brains process information.
• Sociology : Sociologists use research methods to study social phenomena, such as social inequality, social change, and social relationships. Researchers may use surveys, interviews, and observational studies to collect data on social attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
• Medicine : Research methods are essential in medical research to study diseases, test new treatments, and evaluate their effectiveness. Researchers may use clinical trials, case studies, and laboratory experiments to collect data on the efficacy and safety of different medical treatments.
• Education : Research methods are used in education to understand how students learn, how teachers teach, and how educational policies affect student outcomes. Researchers may use surveys, experiments, and observational studies to collect data on student performance, teacher effectiveness, and educational programs.
• Business : Research methods are used in business to understand consumer behavior, market trends, and business strategies. Researchers may use surveys, focus groups, and observational studies to collect data on consumer preferences, market trends, and industry competition.
• Environmental science : Research methods are used in environmental science to study the natural world and its ecosystems. Researchers may use field studies, laboratory experiments, and observational studies to collect data on environmental factors, such as air and water quality, and the impact of human activities on the environment.
• Political science : Research methods are used in political science to study political systems, institutions, and behavior. Researchers may use surveys, experiments, and observational studies to collect data on political attitudes, voting behavior, and the impact of policies on society.

Purpose of Research Methods

Research methods serve several purposes, including:

• Identify research problems: Research methods are used to identify research problems or questions that need to be addressed through empirical investigation.
• Develop hypotheses: Research methods help researchers develop hypotheses, which are tentative explanations for the observed phenomenon or relationship.
• Collect data: Research methods enable researchers to collect data in a systematic and objective way, which is necessary to test hypotheses and draw meaningful conclusions.
• Analyze data: Research methods provide tools and techniques for analyzing data, such as statistical analysis, content analysis, and discourse analysis.
• Test hypotheses: Research methods allow researchers to test hypotheses by examining the relationships between variables in a systematic and controlled manner.
• Draw conclusions : Research methods facilitate the drawing of conclusions based on empirical evidence and help researchers make generalizations about a population based on their sample data.
• Enhance understanding: Research methods contribute to the development of knowledge and enhance our understanding of various phenomena and relationships, which can inform policy, practice, and theory.

When to Use Research Methods

Research methods are used when you need to gather information or data to answer a question or to gain insights into a particular phenomenon.

Here are some situations when research methods may be appropriate:

• To investigate a problem : Research methods can be used to investigate a problem or a research question in a particular field. This can help in identifying the root cause of the problem and developing solutions.
• To gather data: Research methods can be used to collect data on a particular subject. This can be done through surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, and more.
• To evaluate programs : Research methods can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a program, intervention, or policy. This can help in determining whether the program is meeting its goals and objectives.
• To explore new areas : Research methods can be used to explore new areas of inquiry or to test new hypotheses. This can help in advancing knowledge in a particular field.
• To make informed decisions : Research methods can be used to gather information and data to support informed decision-making. This can be useful in various fields such as healthcare, business, and education.

Advantages of Research Methods

Research methods provide several advantages, including:

• Objectivity : Research methods enable researchers to gather data in a systematic and objective manner, minimizing personal biases and subjectivity. This leads to more reliable and valid results.
• Replicability : A key advantage of research methods is that they allow for replication of studies by other researchers. This helps to confirm the validity of the findings and ensures that the results are not specific to the particular research team.
• Generalizability : Research methods enable researchers to gather data from a representative sample of the population, allowing for generalizability of the findings to a larger population. This increases the external validity of the research.
• Precision : Research methods enable researchers to gather data using standardized procedures, ensuring that the data is accurate and precise. This allows researchers to make accurate predictions and draw meaningful conclusions.
• Efficiency : Research methods enable researchers to gather data efficiently, saving time and resources. This is especially important when studying large populations or complex phenomena.
• Innovation : Research methods enable researchers to develop new techniques and tools for data collection and analysis, leading to innovation and advancement in the field.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Mixed Methods Research – Types & Analysis

Quantitative Research – Methods, Types and...

Assignment – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Tables in Research Paper – Types, Creating Guide...

Transformative Design – Methods, Types, Guide

Background of The Study – Examples and Writing...

Research Methodology

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research. Developing your methodology involves studying the research methods used in your field and the theories or principles that underpin them, in order to choose the approach that best matches your research objectives. Methodology is the first step in planning a research project.

Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA)

Scoping Review vs Systematic Review

Reviewed by Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Doing a Scoping Review: A Practical, Step-by-Step Guide

Doing a systematic review: a student's guide, scientific method, qualitative research, experiments.

The scientific method is a step-by-step process used by researchers and scientists to determine if there is a relationship between two or more variables. Psychologists use this method to conduct psychological research, gather data, process information, and describe behaviors.

Learn More: Steps of the Scientific Method

Variables apply to experimental investigations. The independent variable is the variable the experimenter manipulates or changes. The dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in an experiment, and is 'dependent' on the independent variable.

Learn More: Independent and Dependent Variables

When you perform a statistical test a p-value helps you determine the significance of your results in relation to the null hypothesis. A p-value less than 0.05 (typically ≤ 0.05) is statistically significant.

Learn More: P-Value and Statistical Significance

Qualitative research is a process used for the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of non-numerical data. Qualitative research can be used to gain a deep contextual understanding of the subjective social reality of individuals.

The experimental method involves the manipulation of variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships. The key features are controlled methods and the random allocation of participants into controlled and experimental groups.

Learn More: How the Experimental Method Works in Psychology

Frequent Asked Questions

What does p-value of 0.05 mean?

A p-value less than 0.05 (typically ≤ 0.05) is statistically significant. It indicates strong evidence against the null hypothesis, as there is less than a 5% probability the results have occurred by random chance rather than a real effect. Therefore, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.

However, it is important to note that the p-value is not the only factor that should be considered when interpreting the results of a hypothesis test. Other factors, such as effect size, should also be considered.

Learn More: What A p-Value Tells You About Statistical Significance

What does z-score tell you?

A  z-score  describes the position of a raw score in terms of its distance from the mean when measured in standard deviation units. It is also known as a standard score because it allows the comparison of scores on different variables by standardizing the distribution. The z-score is positive if the value lies above the mean and negative if it lies below the mean.

Learn More: Z-Score: Definition, Calculation, Formula, & Interpretation

What is an independent vs dependent variable?

The independent variable is the variable the experimenter manipulates or changes and is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable. For example, allocating participants to either drug or placebo conditions (independent variable) to measure any changes in the intensity of their anxiety (dependent variable).

Learn More : What are Independent and Dependent Variables?

What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative?

Quantitative data is numerical information about quantities and qualitative data is descriptive and regards phenomena that can be observed but not measured, such as language.

Learn More: What’s the difference between qualitative and quantitative research?

Explore Research Methodology

Doing a Meta-Analysis: A Practical, Step-by-Step Guide

Critical Discourse Analysis

Mixed Methods Research

Conversation Analysis

Discourse Analysis

Phenomenology In Qualitative Research

Ethnography In Qualitative Research

Narrative Analysis In Qualitative Research

Thematic Analysis: A Step by Step Guide

Metasynthesis Of Qualitative Research

Grounded Theory In Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide

Qualitative Data Coding

What Is a Focus Group?

Cross-Cultural Research Methodology In Psychology

What Is Internal Validity In Research?

Reviewed by Saul McLeod, PhD

What Is Face Validity In Research? Importance & How To Measure

Criterion Validity: Definition & Examples

Convergent Validity: Definition and Examples

Content Validity in Research: Definition & Examples

Construct Validity In Psychology Research

Concurrent Validity In Psychology

Internal vs. External Validity In Psychology

Qualitative Research: Characteristics, Design, Methods & Examples

Demand Characteristics In Psychology: Definition, Examples & Control

Between-Subjects vs. Within-Subjects Study Design

Random Assignment in Psychology: Definition & Examples

Double-Blind Experimental Study And Procedure Explained

Observer Bias: Definition, Examples & Prevention

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation
• What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

Published on 25 February 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.

Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research.

It should include:

• The type of research you conducted
• How you collected and analysed your data
• Any tools or materials you used in the research
• Why you chose these methods
• Your methodology section should generally be written in the past tense .
• Academic style guides in your field may provide detailed guidelines on what to include for different types of studies.
• Your citation style might provide guidelines for your methodology section (e.g., an APA Style methods section ).

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Be assured that you'll submit flawless writing. Upload your document to correct all your mistakes.

Table of contents

How to write a research methodology, why is a methods section important, step 1: explain your methodological approach, step 2: describe your data collection methods, step 3: describe your analysis method, step 4: evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made, tips for writing a strong methodology chapter, frequently asked questions about methodology.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Your methods section is your opportunity to share how you conducted your research and why you chose the methods you chose. It’s also the place to show that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated .

It gives your research legitimacy and situates it within your field, and also gives your readers a place to refer to if they have any questions or critiques in other sections.

You can start by introducing your overall approach to your research. You have two options here.

Option 1: Start with your “what”

What research problem or question did you investigate?

• Aim to describe the characteristics of something?
• Explore an under-researched topic?
• Establish a causal relationship?

And what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?

• Quantitative data , qualitative data , or a mix of both?
• Primary data collected yourself, or secondary data collected by someone else?
• Experimental data gathered by controlling and manipulating variables, or descriptive data gathered via observations?

Option 2: Start with your “why”

Depending on your discipline, you can also start with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions underpinning your methodology. In other words, why did you choose these methods for your study?

• Why is this the best way to answer your research question?
• Is this a standard methodology in your field, or does it require justification?
• Were there any ethical considerations involved in your choices?
• What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research ?

Once you have introduced your reader to your methodological approach, you should share full details about your data collection methods .

Quantitative methods

In order to be considered generalisable, you should describe quantitative research methods in enough detail for another researcher to replicate your study.

Here, explain how you operationalised your concepts and measured your variables. Discuss your sampling method or inclusion/exclusion criteria, as well as any tools, procedures, and materials you used to gather your data.

Surveys Describe where, when, and how the survey was conducted.

• How did you design the questionnaire?
• What form did your questions take (e.g., multiple choice, Likert scale )?
• Were your surveys conducted in-person or virtually?
• What sampling method did you use to select participants?
• What was your sample size and response rate?

Experiments Share full details of the tools, techniques, and procedures you used to conduct your experiment.

• How did you design the experiment ?
• How did you recruit participants?
• How did you manipulate and measure the variables ?
• What tools did you use?

Existing data Explain how you gathered and selected the material (such as datasets or archival data) that you used in your analysis.

• Where did you source the material?
• How was the data originally produced?
• What criteria did you use to select material (e.g., date range)?

The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10 questions measured on a 7-point Likert scale.

The goal was to collect survey responses from 350 customers visiting the fitness apparel company’s brick-and-mortar location in Boston on 4–8 July 2022, between 11:00 and 15:00.

Here, a customer was defined as a person who had purchased a product from the company on the day they took the survey. Participants were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey anonymously. In total, 408 customers responded, but not all surveys were fully completed. Due to this, 371 survey results were included in the analysis.

Qualitative methods

In qualitative research , methods are often more flexible and subjective. For this reason, it’s crucial to robustly explain the methodology choices you made.

Be sure to discuss the criteria you used to select your data, the context in which your research was conducted, and the role you played in collecting your data (e.g., were you an active participant, or a passive observer?)

Interviews or focus groups Describe where, when, and how the interviews were conducted.

• How did you find and select participants?
• How many participants took part?
• What form did the interviews take ( structured , semi-structured , or unstructured )?
• How long were the interviews?
• How were they recorded?

Participant observation Describe where, when, and how you conducted the observation or ethnography .

• What group or community did you observe? How long did you spend there?
• How did you gain access to this group? What role did you play in the community?
• How long did you spend conducting the research? Where was it located?
• How did you record your data (e.g., audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?

Existing data Explain how you selected case study materials for your analysis.

• What type of materials did you analyse?
• How did you select them?

In order to gain better insight into possibilities for future improvement of the fitness shop’s product range, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers.

Here, a returning customer was defined as someone who usually bought products at least twice a week from the store.

Surveys were used to select participants. Interviews were conducted in a small office next to the cash register and lasted approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also filmed with consent. One interviewee preferred not to be filmed.

Mixed methods

Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches. If a standalone quantitative or qualitative study is insufficient to answer your research question, mixed methods may be a good fit for you.

Mixed methods are less common than standalone analyses, largely because they require a great deal of effort to pull off successfully. If you choose to pursue mixed methods, it’s especially important to robustly justify your methods here.

Next, you should indicate how you processed and analysed your data. Avoid going into too much detail: you should not start introducing or discussing any of your results at this stage.

In quantitative research , your analysis will be based on numbers. In your methods section, you can include:

• How you prepared the data before analysing it (e.g., checking for missing data , removing outliers , transforming variables)
• Which software you used (e.g., SPSS, Stata or R)
• Which statistical tests you used (e.g., two-tailed t test , simple linear regression )

In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images, and observations (often involving some form of textual analysis ).

Specific methods might include:

• Content analysis : Categorising and discussing the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
• Thematic analysis : Coding and closely examining the data to identify broad themes and patterns
• Discourse analysis : Studying communication and meaning in relation to their social context

Mixed methods combine the above two research methods, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches into one coherent analytical process.

Above all, your methodology section should clearly make the case for why you chose the methods you did. This is especially true if you did not take the most standard approach to your topic. In this case, discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.

In any case, it should be overwhelmingly clear to your reader that you set yourself up for success in terms of your methodology’s design. Show how your methods should lead to results that are valid and reliable, while leaving the analysis of the meaning, importance, and relevance of your results for your discussion section .

• Quantitative: Lab-based experiments cannot always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviours, but they are effective for testing causal relationships between variables .
• Qualitative: Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be generalised beyond the sample group , but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations, and emotions.
• Mixed methods: Despite issues systematically comparing differing types of data, a solely quantitative study would not sufficiently incorporate the lived experience of each participant, while a solely qualitative study would be insufficiently generalisable.

Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show how and why you applied them. Again, it’s critical to demonstrate that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated.

1. Focus on your objectives and research questions

The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives  and convince the reader that you chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions .

2. Cite relevant sources

Your methodology can be strengthened by referencing existing research in your field. This can help you to:

• Show that you followed established practice for your type of research
• Discuss how you decided on your approach by evaluating existing research
• Present a novel methodological approach to address a gap in the literature

3. Write for your audience

Consider how much information you need to give, and avoid getting too lengthy. If you are using methods that are standard for your discipline, you probably don’t need to give a lot of background or justification.

Regardless, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes an argument for your approach, not just a list of technical details and procedures.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research. Developing your methodology involves studying the research methods used in your field and the theories or principles that underpin them, in order to choose the approach that best matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyse data (e.g. interviews, experiments , surveys , statistical tests ).

In a dissertation or scientific paper, the methodology chapter or methods section comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2022, October 10). What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved 18 September 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/methodology/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, how to write a dissertation proposal | a step-by-step guide, what is a literature review | guide, template, & examples, what is a theoretical framework | a step-by-step guide.

• More from M-W
• To save this word, you'll need to log in. Log In

methodology

Definition of methodology

Did you know.

Methodology and Science

The methodology employed in an experiment is essential to its success, and bad methodology has spoiled thousands of research projects. So whenever a piece of research is published in a scientific or medical journal, the researchers always carefully describe their methodology; otherwise, other scientists couldn't possibly judge the quality of what they've done.

Examples of methodology in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'methodology.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

New Latin methodologia , from Latin methodus + -logia -logy

1800, in the meaning defined at sense 1

Articles Related to methodology

Are You Misusing These 10 Common Words?

You keep using that word. I do not think it means what you think it means.

Dictionary Entries Near methodology

methodologist

methods engineer

Cite this Entry

“Methodology.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/methodology. Accessed 20 Sep. 2024.

More from Merriam-Webster on methodology

Nglish: Translation of methodology for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of methodology for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about methodology

Subscribe to America's largest dictionary and get thousands more definitions and advanced search—ad free!

Can you solve 4 words at once?

Word of the day.

See Definitions and Examples »

Get Word of the Day daily email!

Popular in Grammar & Usage

Every letter is silent, sometimes: a-z list of examples, plural and possessive names: a guide, the difference between 'i.e.' and 'e.g.', more commonly misspelled words, absent letters that are heard anyway, popular in wordplay, weird words for autumn time, much ado about ‘folie à deux’, 10 words from taylor swift songs (merriam's version), 9 superb owl words, 15 words that used to mean something different, games & quizzes.

Research Methodologies

• What are research designs?
• What are research methodologies?

What are research methods?

Quantitative research methods, qualitative research methods, mixed method approach, selecting the best research method.

• Additional Sources

Research methods are different from research methodologies because they are the ways in which you will collect the data for your research project.  The best method for your project largely depends on your topic, the type of data you will need, and the people or items from which you will be collecting data.  The following boxes below contain a list of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methods.

• Closed-ended questionnaires/survey: These types of questionnaires or surveys are like "multiple choice" tests, where participants must select from a list of premade answers.  According to the content of the question, they must select the one that they agree with the most.  This approach is the simplest form of quantitative research because the data is easy to combine and quantify.
• Structured interviews: These are a common research method in market research because the data can be quantified.  They are strictly designed for little "wiggle room" in the interview process so that the data will not be skewed.  You can conduct structured interviews in-person, online, or over the phone (Dawson, 2019).

Constructing Questionnaires

When constructing your questions for a survey or questionnaire, there are things you can do to ensure that your questions are accurate and easy to understand (Dawson, 2019):

• Keep the questions brief and simple.
• Eliminate any potential bias from your questions.  Make sure that they do not word things in a way that favor one perspective over another.
• If your topic is very sensitive, you may want to ask indirect questions rather than direct ones.  This prevents participants from being intimidated and becoming unwilling to share their true responses.
• If you are using a closed-ended question, try to offer every possible answer that a participant could give to that question.
• Do not ask questions that assume something of the participant.  The question "How often do you exercise?" assumes that the participant exercises (when they may not), so you would want to include a question that asks if they exercise at all before asking them how often.
• Try and keep the questionnaire as short as possible.  The longer a questionnaire takes, the more likely the participant will not complete it or get too tired to put truthful answers.
• Promise confidentiality to your participants at the beginning of the questionnaire.

Quantitative Research Measures

When you are considering a quantitative approach to your research, you need to identify why types of measures you will use in your study.  This will determine what type of numbers you will be using to collect your data.  There are four levels of measurement:

• Nominal: These are numbers where the order of the numbers do not matter.  They aim to identify separate information.  One example is collecting zip codes from research participants.  The order of the numbers does not matter, but the series of numbers in each zip code indicate different information (Adamson and Prion, 2013).
• Ordinal: Also known as rankings because the order of these numbers matter.  This is when items are given a specific rank according to specific criteria.  A common example of ordinal measurements include ranking-based questionnaires, where participants are asked to rank items from least favorite to most favorite.  Another common example is a pain scale, where a patient is asked to rank their pain on a scale from 1 to 10 (Adamson and Prion, 2013).
• Interval: This is when the data are ordered and the distance between the numbers matters to the researcher (Adamson and Prion, 2013).  The distance between each number is the same.  An example of interval data is test grades.
• Ratio: This is when the data are ordered and have a consistent distance between numbers, but has a "zero point."  This means that there could be a measurement of zero of whatever you are measuring in your study (Adamson and Prion, 2013).  An example of ratio data is measuring the height of something because the "zero point" remains constant in all measurements.  The height of something could also be zero.

Focus Groups

This is when a select group of people gather to talk about a particular topic.  They can also be called discussion groups or group interviews (Dawson, 2019).  They are usually lead by a moderator  to help guide the discussion and ask certain questions.  It is critical that a moderator allows everyone in the group to get a chance to speak so that no one dominates the discussion.  The data that are gathered from focus groups tend to be thoughts, opinions, and perspectives about an issue.

Advantages of Focus Groups

• Only requires one meeting to get different types of responses.
• Less researcher bias due to participants being able to speak openly.
• Helps participants overcome insecurities or fears about a topic.
• The researcher can also consider the impact of participant interaction.

Disadvantages of Focus Groups

• Participants may feel uncomfortable to speak in front of an audience, especially if the topic is sensitive or controversial.
• Since participation is voluntary, not every participant may contribute equally to the discussion.
• Participants may impact what others say or think.
• A researcher may feel intimidated by running a focus group on their own.
• A researcher may need extra funds/resources to provide a safe space to host the focus group.
• Because the data is collective, it may be difficult to determine a participant's individual thoughts about the research topic.

Observation

There are two ways to conduct research observations:

• Direct Observation: The researcher observes a participant in an environment.  The researcher often takes notes or uses technology to gather data, such as a voice recorder or video camera.  The researcher does not interact or interfere with the participants.  This approach is often used in psychology and health studies (Dawson, 2019).
• Participant Observation:  The researcher interacts directly with the participants to get a better understanding of the research topic.  This is a common research method when trying to understand another culture or community.  It is important to decide if you will conduct a covert (participants do not know they are part of the research) or overt (participants know the researcher is observing them) observation because it can be unethical in some situations (Dawson, 2019).

Open-Ended Questionnaires

These types of questionnaires are the opposite of "multiple choice" questionnaires because the answer boxes are left open for the participant to complete.  This means that participants can write short or extended answers to the questions.  Upon gathering the responses, researchers will often "quantify" the data by organizing the responses into different categories.  This can be time consuming because the researcher needs to read all responses carefully.

Semi-structured Interviews

This is the most common type of interview where researchers aim to get specific information so they can compare it to other interview data.  This requires asking the same questions for each interview, but keeping their responses flexible.  This means including follow-up questions if a subject answers a certain way.  Interview schedules are commonly used to aid the interviewers, which list topics or questions that will be discussed at each interview (Dawson, 2019).

Theoretical Analysis

Often used for nonhuman research, theoretical analysis is a qualitative approach where the researcher applies a theoretical framework to analyze something about their topic.  A theoretical framework gives the researcher a specific "lens" to view the topic and think about it critically. it also serves as context to guide the entire study.  This is a popular research method for analyzing works of literature, films, and other forms of media.  You can implement more than one theoretical framework with this method, as many theories complement one another.

Common theoretical frameworks for qualitative research are (Grant and Osanloo, 2014):

• Behavioral theory
• Change theory
• Cognitive theory
• Content analysis
• Cross-sectional analysis
• Developmental theory
• Feminist theory
• Gender theory
• Marxist theory
• Queer theory
• Systems theory
• Transformational theory

Unstructured Interviews

These are in-depth interviews where the researcher tries to understand an interviewee's perspective on a situation or issue.  They are sometimes called life history interviews.  It is important not to bombard the interviewee with too many questions so they can freely disclose their thoughts (Dawson, 2019).

• Open-ended and closed-ended questionnaires: This approach means implementing elements of both questionnaire types into your data collection.  Participants may answer some questions with premade answers and write their own answers to other questions.  The advantage to this method is that you benefit from both types of data collection to get a broader understanding of you participants.  However, you must think carefully about how you will analyze this data to arrive at a conclusion.

Other mixed method approaches that incorporate quantitative and qualitative research methods depend heavily on the research topic.  It is strongly recommended that you collaborate with your academic advisor before finalizing a mixed method approach.

How do you determine which research method would be best for your proposal?  This heavily depends on your research objective.  According to Dawson (2019), there are several questions to ask yourself when determining the best research method for your project:

• Are you good with numbers and mathematics?
• Would you be interested in conducting interviews with human subjects?
• Would you enjoy creating a questionnaire for participants to complete?
• Do you prefer written communication or face-to-face interaction?
• What skills or experiences do you have that might help you with your research?  Do you have any experiences from past research projects that can help with this one?
• How much time do you have to complete the research?  Some methods take longer to collect data than others.
• What is your budget?  Do you have adequate funding to conduct the research in the method you  want?
• How much data do you need?  Some research topics need only a small amount of data while others may need significantly larger amounts.
• What is the purpose of your research? This can provide a good indicator as to what research method will be most appropriate.
• << Previous: What are research methodologies?
• Next: Additional Sources >>
• Last Updated: Aug 2, 2022 2:36 PM
• URL: https://library.tiffin.edu/researchmethodologies

• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar
• Skip to footer
• QuestionPro

• Solutions Industries Gaming Automotive Sports and events Education Government Travel & Hospitality Financial Services Healthcare Cannabis Technology Use Case AskWhy Communities Audience Contactless surveys Mobile LivePolls Member Experience GDPR Positive People Science 360 Feedback Surveys
• Resources Blog eBooks Survey Templates Case Studies Training Help center

Home Market Research

What is Research: Definition, Methods, Types & Examples

The search for knowledge is closely linked to the object of study; that is, to the reconstruction of the facts that will provide an explanation to an observed event and that at first sight can be considered as a problem. It is very human to seek answers and satisfy our curiosity. Let’s talk about research.

Content Index

What is Research?

What are the characteristics of research.

• Comparative analysis chart

Qualitative methods

Quantitative methods, 8 tips for conducting accurate research.

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research , and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis .

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

• Identify potential and new customers
• Understand existing customers
• Set pragmatic goals
• Develop productive market strategies
• Address business challenges
• Put together a business expansion plan
• Identify new business opportunities
• Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
• The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
• Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
• There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated with it.
• It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research opportunities.
• It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
• Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.

What is the purpose of research?

There are three main purposes:

• Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to explore a group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before. This exploratory data analysis process lays the foundation for more conclusive data collection and analysis.

LEARN ABOUT: Descriptive Analysis

• Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data collection. Descriptive research describe the behavior of a sample population. Only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary purposes of descriptive studies are describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the company profit.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

• Explanatory: Causal research or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact of specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the most popular form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

Here is a comparative analysis chart for a better understanding:

It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or observations to draw reasonable conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the better the analysis. You get essential insights into brand perception and product needs by thoroughly collecting customer data through surveys and questionnaires . You can use this data to make smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.

To make sense of your study and get insights faster, it helps to use a research repository as a single source of truth in your organization and manage your research data in one centralized data repository .

Types of research methods and Examples

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative .

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods .

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-ended questions . The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

• One-to-one Interview
• Focus Groups
• Ethnographic studies
• Text Analysis

Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms . It uses a systematic way of investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

Types of quantitative methods include:

• Survey research
• Descriptive research
• Correlational research

LEARN MORE: Descriptive Research vs Correlational Research

Remember, it is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable. Incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

• Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.
• Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
• Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar results.
• Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
• Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

Gather insights

• Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe. Write a sentence describing each one.
• Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
• Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
• Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats identified in a SWOT analysis .
• Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
• Act on your strategies
• Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry if necessary
• Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze and interpret results.

Review your goals before making any conclusions about your study. Remember how the process you have completed and the data you have gathered help answer your questions. Ask yourself if what your analysis revealed facilitates the identification of your conclusions and recommendations.

LEARN MORE ABOUT OUR SOFTWARE         FREE TRIAL

MORE LIKE THIS

Customer Reviews: How to Ask and Easy Ways to Get Them

Sep 19, 2024

Raw Data: What it is + How to Process It

Sep 18, 2024

QuestionPro: Leading the Charge in Customer Journey Management and Voice of the Customer Platforms

Sep 17, 2024

What is Driver Analysis? Importance and Best Practices

Other categories.

• Academic Research
• Artificial Intelligence
• Assessments
• Brand Awareness
• Case Studies
• Communities
• Consumer Insights
• Customer effort score
• Customer Engagement
• Customer Experience
• Customer Loyalty
• Customer Research
• Customer Satisfaction
• Employee Benefits
• Employee Engagement
• Employee Retention
• Friday Five
• General Data Protection Regulation
• Insights Hub
• Life@QuestionPro
• Market Research
• Mobile diaries
• Mobile Surveys
• New Features
• Online Communities
• Question Types
• Questionnaire
• QuestionPro Products
• Release Notes
• Research Tools and Apps
• Revenue at Risk
• Survey Templates
• Training Tips
• Tuesday CX Thoughts (TCXT)
• Uncategorized
• What’s Coming Up
• Workforce Intelligence

• Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Research Method and Research Methodology

The research methods are often confused with research methodology , which implies the scientific analysis of the research methods, so as to find a solution to the problem at hand. Hence, it seems apt to clarify the differences between research method and research methodology at this juncture, have a look.

Content: Research Method Vs Research Methodology

Comparison chart.

Definition of Research Method

Research method pertains to all those methods, which a researcher employs to undertake research process, to solve the given problem. The techniques and procedure, that are applied during the course of studying research problem are known as the research method. It encompasses both qualitative and quantitative method of performing research operations, such as survey, case study, interview, questionnaire, observation, etc.

These are the approaches, which help in collecting data and conducting research, in order to achieve specific objectives such as theory testing or development. All the instruments and behaviour, used at various levels of the research activity such as making observations, data collection, data processing, drawing inferences, decision making, etc. are included in it. Research methods are put into three categories:

• First Category : The methods relating to data collection are covered. Such methods are used when the existing data is not sufficient, to reach the solution.
• Second Category: Incorporates the processes of analysing data, i.e. to identify patterns and establish a relationship between data and unknowns.
• Third Category : Comprise of the methods which are used to check the accuracy of the results obtained.

Definition of Research Methodology

Research Methodology, as its name suggest is the study of methods, so as to solve the research problem. It is the science of learning the way research should be performed systematically. It refers to the rigorous analysis of the methods applied in the stream of research, to ensure that the conclusions drawn are valid, reliable and credible too.

The researcher takes an overview of various steps that are chosen by him in understanding the problem at hand, along with the logic behind the methods employed by the researcher during study. It also clarifies the reason for using a particular method or technique, and not others, so that the results obtained can be assessed either by the researcher himself or any other party.

Key Differences Between Research Method and Research Methodology

The differences between research method and research methodology can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:

• The research method is defined as the procedure or technique applied by the researcher to undertake research. On the other hand, research methodology is a system of methods, used scientifically for solving the research problem.
• The research method is nothing but the behaviour or tool, employed in selecting and building research technique. Conversely, research methodology implies the science of analysing, the manner in which research is conducted appropriately.
• The research method is concerned with carrying out experiment, test, surveys, interviews, etc. As against this, research methodology is concerned with learning various techniques which can be employed in the performance of experiment, test or survey.
• Research method covers various investigation techniques. Unlike, research methodology, which consists of complete approach aligned towards the attainment of purpose.
• Research method intends to discover the solution to the problem at hand. In contrast, research methodology aspires to apply appropriate procedures, with a view to ascertaining solutions.

The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research method, as the latter is the part of the former. For understanding the research problem thoroughly, the researcher should know the research methodology along with the methods.

In a nutshell, research method refers to the technique which can be adopted to explore the nature of the world that surrounds us. On the contrary, research methodology is the foundation, which helps us to understand the determinants influencing the effectiveness of the methods applied.

You Might Also Like:

probably says

May 26, 2017 at 6:05 pm

Thank you for the definitions.

arsadan says

June 7, 2017 at 11:00 am

good and helpful content…. thank you

Uwezo Chahe says

November 19, 2022 at 5:50 pm

Richard Kisembo says

September 26, 2017 at 1:37 pm

It’s a good piece. Thanx

Elijah Olawale says

November 23, 2017 at 6:45 pm

I really thank you at this time,thanks a lot!

Amelia Williams says

February 28, 2018 at 4:17 am

Good and helpful thanks Surbhi, I would like to cite your work, can you please post a reference. thankyou

Surbhi S says

February 28, 2018 at 9:47 am

“Difference Between Research Method and Research Methodology” Keydifferences.com By Surbhi S. 28 Feb 2018 https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-research-method-and-research-methodology.html >

MUSA Auwal Ahmad says

November 4, 2018 at 9:03 pm

November 16, 2023 at 2:29 pm

Thanks for good answers

tamirat says

November 22, 2018 at 7:08 pm

please put in pdf for more reading

PRADEEP says

November 27, 2018 at 1:32 pm

You expressed the content in an elegant way. I wanted to know, What are the references from where you collected this content?

November 28, 2018 at 6:32 pm

Thank you for clarification

CHARLES SSENGONZI says

March 12, 2019 at 6:31 am

This is really helpful. Thanks for the explanation.

Jackilina Rafael says

March 25, 2019 at 7:08 pm

thanks for your good explanation

philomena wanyama. says

June 22, 2019 at 1:10 am

Thanks. very well put!

Er SOHAIL JAVED says

December 15, 2019 at 11:19 am

The description of the subject is mentioned quite well, easy to understand and it reduces the mental stress for understanding the concept.

Jewel Rana says

April 16, 2020 at 9:56 am

This writing is very helpful to understand. Thank you for this .

Emmanuel Boateng Donald says

February 12, 2021 at 3:01 pm

Thank you for this work.

DAVID MASELI says

March 20, 2021 at 3:27 pm

So helpful have not enough words to say thank you

Bola Lawson says

September 25, 2021 at 9:30 pm

This is very insightful. You’re efforts is appreciated

Jkmarafa says

December 2, 2021 at 11:17 am

Thanks for the post

James A Batey says

January 29, 2022 at 8:15 am

I appreciate your contribution to the facilitation of learning

Jasson J Nkongo says

February 9, 2022 at 11:17 pm

Thank you so much fo the explanations

March 13, 2022 at 7:07 pm

THANK YOU IT WAS QUITE HELPFUL ,PLEASE CAN YOU ALSO EXPLAIN RESEARCH TECHNIQUES?

Babasola Osoteku says

July 30, 2022 at 6:02 pm

Thank you, that was insightful

September 25, 2022 at 2:34 am

Thank you for the brief but deep explanation

square says

December 2, 2022 at 12:27 am

Thanks for the explanation its very helpful

Fatima Ahmad says

January 25, 2023 at 8:12 pm

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Phenomenography in Research | Definition & Method

Introduction

What is the meaning of phenomenography, what is phenomenographic research, how do you conduct phenomenography.

Phenomenography is a qualitative research approach that helps researchers tackle key challenges in understanding the different ways people experience, understand, and conceptualize various aspects of a phenomena. Originating in the field of education, it is often used to explore how individuals perceive and engage with specific concepts or activities. This approach is particularly useful in identifying the range of experiences within a group, making it valuable for studies that aim to understand variations in perception rather than universal truths.

In this article, we will define phenomenography, discuss its origins and assumptions, and outline the key aspects of conducting phenomenographic research.

Phenomenography is a qualitative research method that focuses on understanding the different ways people perceive, understand, or experience a particular phenomenon. Unlike other approaches that might aim to uncover a single objective truth or reality, phenomenography acknowledges and values the diversity of individual experiences. It is rooted in the belief that people's experiences are shaped by their unique contexts, backgrounds, and interactions with the world around them. This method seeks to map out these variations in understanding, offering a structured way to categorize and analyze the different perspectives people hold regarding the same phenomenon.

At its core, phenomenography is concerned with describing the range of experiences related to a specific concept or phenomenon. It does not aim to judge or rank these experiences but rather to document them in a way that highlights the richness and diversity of human understanding. This makes phenomenography particularly useful in addressing challenges in science education and other similar contexts, where it can be applied to understand how different learners perceive and engage with the same content or learning experience. The insights gained from phenomenographic studies can inform teaching practices, curriculum design, and policy-making, as they provide a deeper understanding of the various ways in which individuals construct meaning in their educational journeys.

What are the origins of phenomenography?

The origins of phenomenography can be traced back to Sweden in the late 1970s, where it was developed by Ference Marton and his colleagues at the University of Gothenburg (Marton, 2004). Marton, an educational psychologist, was interested in understanding the differences in how students experience and understand academic content. His research revealed that students learn and retain vastly different conceptions of the same subject matter, even when they had been exposed to the same teaching materials and methods. This realization led Marton to develop phenomenography as a research approach that could systematically explore and categorize these variations in understanding.

The development of phenomenography was influenced by Marton’s dissatisfaction with traditional educational research methods that focused primarily on measuring students’ knowledge in terms of right and wrong answers. He believed that such methods failed to capture the nuances of students' understanding and the underlying reasons for their different perceptions. Phenomenography, therefore, emerged as a response to the need for a more nuanced and descriptive approach to studying learning and understanding.

In its early days, phenomenography was closely associated with educational research, particularly higher education research. Marton and his colleagues conducted several influential studies that used phenomenographic methods to explore how students understood key concepts in subjects like physics, biology, and economics. These studies revealed that students' conceptions could be grouped into distinct categories, each representing a different way of understanding the same phenomenon. The findings of these studies had a significant impact on educational theory and practice, highlighting the importance of considering the diversity of student learning.

Over time, phenomenography has been adopted and adapted by researchers in various fields beyond education. It has been used in healthcare, business, psychology, and other disciplines to explore how individuals and groups perceive and experience different aspects of their work, health, and everyday lives. Despite its expansion into new areas, the core principles of phenomenography—its focus on variation in experience and its commitment to describing rather than evaluating these experiences—have remained central to its application.

What are the main assumptions of phenomenography?

Phenomenography is based on several key assumptions that distinguish it from other qualitative research methods. Understanding these assumptions is crucial for appreciating how phenomenography functions as a research approach and what it aims to achieve.

First, phenomenography assumes that there is no single, objective reality that can be fully understood or represented. Instead, it posits that reality is experienced differently by different individuals, and these experiences are shaped by a variety of factors, including cultural, social, and personal contexts. This assumption means that phenomenography is not concerned with determining the "correct" or "true" understanding of a phenomenon but with exploring and categorizing the different ways it is perceived and understood by different people.

Second, phenomenography operates on the assumption that individuals' experiences and understandings can be systematically categorized. While each person’s experience is unique, phenomenography holds that these experiences can be grouped into categories that represent different ways of understanding the same phenomenon. These categories are not seen as rigid or hierarchical; rather, they reflect the range of possible ways people might conceptualize an experience. The goal is to identify these categories and describe them in a way that captures the essential features of each.

Third, phenomenography assumes that the variation in people’s experiences is a valuable source of insight. Rather than seeing differences in understanding as a problem to be solved, phenomenography views these differences as opportunities to gain a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study. By mapping out the range of experiences, phenomenography provides a fuller picture of how people relate to and make sense of the world around them.

Finally, phenomenography assumes that these categories of description, once identified, can be used to inform practice. In educational contexts, for example, understanding the different ways students perceive a concept can help educators design teaching strategies that address these varied understandings. In other fields, such as healthcare or business, phenomenographic findings can be used to tailor interventions, communication strategies, or policies to better meet the needs of different groups.

Make your research come to life with ATLAS.ti

For robust data analysis, turn to our powerful data analysis platform. Download a free trial.

Phenomenographic research is a qualitative approach designed to identify and describe the different ways individuals perceive, understand, or experience a particular phenomenon. Unlike methods that seek to determine a single, objective reality, phenomenography recognizes the diversity in how people interpret the same phenomenon. This method is particularly useful in fields like education, healthcare, and organizational studies, where understanding the variety of experiences within a group is crucial.

The process of phenomenographic research typically involves collecting data through interviews or surveys, where participants are asked to describe their experiences or perceptions. The researcher then analyzes this data to identify distinct categories of description, each representing a different way of understanding the phenomenon. These categories are not meant to be exhaustive but rather to capture the range of perspectives present in the group. The final outcome is an "outcome space," which visually or descriptively represents the relationships between these various understandings.

What sort of research questions are addressed by phenomenography?

Phenomenography is particularly suited to research questions that explore the different ways in which people understand or experience a specific phenomenon. Instead of measuring the frequency or intensity of these experiences, phenomenography seeks to map out the variety of perspectives within a group. Some examples of research questions that might be addressed by phenomenography include:

• How do students in a particular course understand the concept of critical thinking? This question helps to identify the different ways students perceive critical thinking, which can inform more effective teaching strategies.
• What are the various ways healthcare professionals perceive patient-centered care? Understanding these different perceptions can lead to more personalized and effective approaches in healthcare practices.
• How do employees within an organization understand the concept of leadership? Investigating different conceptions of leadership can provide insights that inform leadership development programs and improve organizational culture.

These types of research questions are focused on understanding the diversity of experiences and perceptions within a group, making phenomenography an ideal method for studies where this diversity is a key focus.

What is the difference between ethnography and phenomenography?

While both ethnography and phenomenography are qualitative research methods , they differ in their focus and approach. Ethnography involves the in-depth study of people and cultures, typically through extended fieldwork that includes participant observation , interviews , and the collection of artifacts. Unlike phenomenography, the primary aim of other qualitative methods like ethnography is to understand the social dynamics, practices, and cultural meanings within a specific group or community, emphasizing the context in which these interactions occur.

Phenomenography, on the other hand, focuses on understanding the variations in how people experience or conceptualize a specific phenomenon. Rather than immersing the researcher in a culture or community, phenomenographic research usually involves interviews or surveys designed to elicit participants' descriptions of their experiences or understandings. The goal is to categorize these different ways of understanding and provide a structured overview of the range of perspectives within a group.

In summary, ethnography seeks to understand the broader context of social and cultural interactions, while phenomenography is more concerned with the differences in individual perceptions of a specific phenomenon.

When is it useful to use phenomenographic research methods?

Phenomenographic research methods are particularly useful when understanding the diversity of perspectives within a group is essential. This approach is especially valuable in educational settings, where it can help educators understand the different ways students perceive and engage with learning materials or concepts. For example, a phenomenographic study might reveal that students have varying understandings of a key concept in a science class, such as energy. By identifying these different conceptions, educators can tailor their teaching strategies to address these variations, ultimately improving learning outcomes.

In healthcare, phenomenography can be used to explore how patients or healthcare providers understand concepts like health, illness, or patient-centered care. Understanding these variations in perception can inform the development of communication strategies, treatment plans, or policies that are better aligned with the needs and perspectives of different groups.

Phenomenography is also valuable in organizational research, where it can be used to investigate how employees understand key organizational concepts, such as leadership, teamwork, or corporate culture. By mapping out these different perceptions, organizations can develop targeted interventions or training programs that address the specific needs and challenges faced by their workforce.

Conducting phenomenographic research involves several key steps designed to capture the variations in how people experience or understand a specific phenomenon. The process requires careful planning and a systematic approach to qualitative methods of data collection and analysis , ensuring that the diversity of perspectives are represented.

Designing the study and selecting participants

The first step in conducting phenomenography is to clearly define the phenomenon of interest. This involves formulating a research question that aims to uncover the different ways people understand or experience the chosen phenomenon. Once the research question is established, the next step is to select participants who have varying experiences or understandings related to the phenomenon. Unlike quantitative research , which typically requires large, random samples, phenomenography often uses purposive sampling to ensure that a diverse range of perspectives is represented.

Research participants should be chosen based on their relevance to the research question rather than their representativeness of the general population. This might involve selecting individuals from different backgrounds, professions, or educational levels who are likely to provide varied insights into the phenomenon. The goal is to capture a range of experiences, which will later be categorized during the analysis.

Data collection through interviews or surveys

Data collection in phenomenography typically involves conducting semi-structured interviews or administering open-ended surveys . Interviews are the most common method, as they allow researchers to explore participants' experiences and understandings in depth. During the interview, participants are encouraged to describe their experiences and perspectives in their own words, without being led or influenced by the interviewer. The questions are usually open-ended, allowing participants to express their thoughts freely and providing the researcher with rich, detailed data.

The interview process should be flexible, with the interviewer adapting their questions based on the participant's responses to ensure a comprehensive exploration of their perspective. The aim is to elicit descriptions that reveal how participants conceptualize the phenomenon, focusing on the key aspects they consider important. Importantly, researchers can use follow-up questions or prompts to clarify or deepen the participant's responses.

While interviews are preferred, surveys can also be used, especially when interviewing is not feasible. Surveys should include open-ended questions that allow respondents to articulate their understanding of the phenomenon in detail. The key is to gather qualitative data that reflects the participants' perspectives without imposing the researcher's assumptions.

Analyzing data and identifying categories of description

Phenomenographic data analysis involves identifying the different ways participants have understood or experienced the phenomenon. The process begins with transcribing the interviews or survey responses and immersing oneself in the data. The researcher reads through the data multiple times to identify significant statements and patterns that reflect different understandings.

Once the initial patterns are identified, the researcher categorizes these into distinct categories of description. Each category represents a qualitatively different way of understanding the phenomenon, and together, they capture the range of perspectives present in the data. The goal is not to quantify these categories but to describe them in a way that highlights the key differences in how the phenomenon is perceived.

After identifying the categories, the researcher creates an "outcome space," which is a visual or descriptive representation of the relationships between these categories. The outcome space shows how the different understandings relate to each other, providing a comprehensive overview of the variations in experience within the group.

The final step involves reflecting on the categories and the outcome space to ensure that they represent the data and the research question. This phase may also involve revisiting the data to refine the categories or the relationships between them, ensuring a robust analysis.

• Marton, F. (2004). Phenomenography: A research approach to investigating different understandings of reality. In R. R. Sherman & R. B. Webb, Qualitative research in education: Focus and methods (pp. 141-161). Routledge.

Turn data into insights with ATLAS.ti

Employ powerful data analysis tools for your research. Begin by downloading a free trial today.

All content related to 'methodology'

Pronunciation of 'methodology'.

It seems that your browser is blocking this video content.

To access it, add this site to the exceptions or modify your security settings, then refresh this page.

Definitions of 'methodology'

Synonyms of 'methodology', collocations with 'methodology', examples of 'methodology'  in a sentence, translations of 'methodology'.

Quick word challenge

Quiz Review

Score: 0 / 5

Wordle Helper

Scrabble Tools

• Access the entire site, including the Easy Learning Grammar , and our language quizzes.
• Customize your language settings. (Unregistered users can only access the International English interface for some pages.)
• Submit new words and phrases to the dictionary.
• Benefit from an increased character limit in our Translator tool.
• Receive our weekly newsletter with the latest news, exclusive content, and offers.
• Be the first to enjoy new tools and features.
• It is easy and completely free !

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods

What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods

Published on June 12, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio).

Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry, psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.

• What is the demographic makeup of Singapore in 2020?
• How has the average temperature changed globally over the last century?
• Does environmental pollution affect the prevalence of honey bees?
• Does working from home increase productivity for people with long commutes?

Table of contents

Quantitative research methods, quantitative data analysis, advantages of quantitative research, disadvantages of quantitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about quantitative research.

You can use quantitative research methods for descriptive, correlational or experimental research.

• In descriptive research , you simply seek an overall summary of your study variables.
• In correlational research , you investigate relationships between your study variables.
• In experimental research , you systematically examine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

Correlational and experimental research can both be used to formally test hypotheses , or predictions, using statistics. The results may be generalized to broader populations based on the sampling method used.

To collect quantitative data, you will often need to use operational definitions that translate abstract concepts (e.g., mood) into observable and quantifiable measures (e.g., self-ratings of feelings and energy levels).

Note that quantitative research is at risk for certain research biases , including information bias , omitted variable bias , sampling bias , or selection bias . Be sure that you’re aware of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data to prevent them from impacting your work too much.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Once data is collected, you may need to process it before it can be analyzed. For example, survey and test data may need to be transformed from words to numbers. Then, you can use statistical analysis to answer your research questions .

Descriptive statistics will give you a summary of your data and include measures of averages and variability. You can also use graphs, scatter plots and frequency tables to visualize your data and check for any trends or outliers.

Using inferential statistics , you can make predictions or generalizations based on your data. You can test your hypothesis or use your sample data to estimate the population parameter .

First, you use descriptive statistics to get a summary of the data. You find the mean (average) and the mode (most frequent rating) of procrastination of the two groups, and plot the data to see if there are any outliers.

You can also assess the reliability and validity of your data collection methods to indicate how consistently and accurately your methods actually measured what you wanted them to.

Quantitative research is often used to standardize data collection and generalize findings . Strengths of this approach include:

• Replication

Repeating the study is possible because of standardized data collection protocols and tangible definitions of abstract concepts.

• Direct comparisons of results

The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings, times or with different groups of participants. Results can be compared statistically.

• Large samples

Data from large samples can be processed and analyzed using reliable and consistent procedures through quantitative data analysis.

• Hypothesis testing

Using formalized and established hypothesis testing procedures means that you have to carefully consider and report your research variables, predictions, data collection and testing methods before coming to a conclusion.

Despite the benefits of quantitative research, it is sometimes inadequate in explaining complex research topics. Its limitations include:

• Superficiality

Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may inadequately represent complex concepts. For example, the concept of mood may be represented with just a number in quantitative research, but explained with elaboration in qualitative research.

• Narrow focus

Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can mean that you ignore other relevant observations.

• Structural bias

Despite standardized procedures, structural biases can still affect quantitative research. Missing data , imprecise measurements or inappropriate sampling methods are biases that can lead to the wrong conclusions.

• Lack of context

Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like laboratories or fails to consider historical and cultural contexts that may affect data collection and results.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

• Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
• Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2023, June 22). What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved September 20, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/quantitative-research/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

Other students also liked, descriptive statistics | definitions, types, examples, inferential statistics | an easy introduction & examples, what is your plagiarism score.