living space essay

Living in space

Like every other living creature we know of, humans evolved at the bottom of a gravity well. We take the Earth's tug for granted, and so do our bodies. So it's not surprising that our bodies behave oddly in orbit. What is surprising is that humans turn out to adapt remarkably well to zero-g (more precisely, microgravity). After all, back in 1961, Soviet scientists were genuinely worried that any prolonged period of weightless might even be fatal - which is why they limited Yuri Gagarin's first space flight to just 108 minutes and a single orbit.

Since then, scientists around the world have had the benefit of years of data on the effects of long-term space living. (The record for a long-duration mission is still held by Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov, who completed a 438-day tour of duty aboard the Mir space station in 1995.) The crews of the ISS are already making full use of that experience, and will certainly add to it.

Weightlessness itself is the most important and the most obvious influence on life in space. Most astronauts find their freedom from gravity exhilarating, especially as they adapt to their new environment. But weightlessness enormously complicates the business of daily life, from eating to sleeping. And space adaptation involves some very complex changes in the human body, both short-term and long-term. These changes can cause health problems both in space and on return to Earth.

There are other factors, too. Outside the protective shield of the Earth's atmosphere, astronauts have to contend with high radiation levels. Mostly, these have minor and long-term effects: a slight increase in the risk of cancer in later life, for example. But during occasional solar flares, the sleet of radiation from the Sun can be immediately life-threatening.

Human psychology plays an important part in the story, too. Life in space also means living with a distinct lack of space. The ISS is vastly larger than any previous space structure, but even so it is no mansion. Astronauts can enjoy the finest views imaginable, with the whole planet stretched out before them amid the starry immensity of the universe. But their living quarters are pretty cramped, and they must share them with their fellow crew members for months at a time.

Still, there is no shortage of applicants for astronaut positions. And virtually everyone who has had the chance to live in space is keen to return. Besides, as our knowledge increases, and space medicine develops throughout the 21st century, the men and women in orbit - and hopefully beyond - should have a more comfortable time in future.

Microgravity affects just about everything in the human body, and usually for the worst. Fortunately, the effects are seldom more than temporarily disabling: humans are very good at adapting. And when astronauts return to Earth, they normally re-adapt very quickly to the customary, gravity-bound environment.

The vestibulary system and "Space Adaptation Syndrome"

We take our ability to stand upright just as much for granted as we do the force of gravity that holds us to the Earth. In fact, the human sense of balance depends on an extremely sophisticated sensor system that provides a constant stream of information to the brain. The key motion sensors are the subtle organs of the vestibulary system inside the inner ear. These function as super-sensitive accelerometers feeding the brain with a steady stream of signals that indicate motion and direction. There are also pressure receptors in the skin and in muscles and joints. Our senses of sight and hearing complete the data stream. Without having to think about it, we usually know everything we need about our body's posture and state of balance.

In the absence of gravity, signals from the vestibulary system and the pressure receptors are wildly misleading. The effect usually leads to immediate disorientation: many astronauts suddenly feel themselves upside-down, for example, or even have difficulty in sensing the location of their own arms and legs.

This disorientation is the main cause of the so-called Space Adaptation Syndrome, which one astronaut wryly described as "a fancy term for throwing up". Half or more of all space travellers suffer from space sickness, which brings with it headaches and poor concentration as well as nausea and vomiting. Usually, though, the problems disappear within a few days as astronauts adapt.

It is their brains, not their stomachs, that do most of the adapting. The confusing signals from the inner ear are largely ignored and vision becomes the prime source of "balance" information. In space, "down" is where your feet happen to be.

When they return to Earth, astronauts have to re-adapt just as painfully. Back at the bottom of the gravity well, most have difficulty maintaining balance - and if they close their eyes, they are very likely to fall over. Because of the effects of weightlessness on bones and muscles, they may have difficulty standing at all. But disorientation itself usually only lasts a few days, and there seem to be no long-term effects.

There is one re-adaptation that can take somewhat longer to accomplish, although the consequences are more likely to be amusing than crippling. Several long-duration Russian cosmonauts have reported that months after their flight, they still occasionally let go of a cup or some other object in mid-air - and are quite disconcerted when it crashes to the floor.

Heart, circulation and body fluids

Almost two-thirds of the average body weight is made up of water, in the form of intercellular fluid, blood plasma and the interstitial fluid between blood vessels and surrounding tissue. On Earth, all this liquid tends to settle downward in the body. Blood pressure at our feet, for example, is about 100mm of mercury higher than blood pressure in our chests. And the need to pump blood against the force of gravity requires the muscles of a big, powerful heart.

In space, there is nothing to pull body fluids down: there is no "down" to pull them to. The first effects are almost immediate. Without the restraint of gravity, fluids migrate from the legs to the head. Inside a day, legs shrink by up to a litre in volume and faces puff up correspondingly. The extra fluid in the head also leads to blocked sinuses and noses - the "space sniffles" that astronauts generally have to live with throughout their mission.

Other effects are more serious. Blood plasma drops by about 20% and the red blood cell count falls similarly: returning astronauts usually suffer from a temporary anaemia. Without gravity to contend with, the heart has to do far less pumping work. Heartbeat slows down. Since the body no longer needs to maintain the powerful heart muscles needed on Earth, heart tissue begins to shrink.

Exercise is not enough to reverse the process, but it helps to minimise it and the exertion also provides some relief from the "sniffles". Whenever possible, astronauts spend several hours a day on a treadmill or similar apparatus: the more exercise they can do in space, the less time it will take to recover on their return.

Bones and muscle

Bones are the scaffolding that holds the body against gravity. Our powerful skeletal muscles support that scaffolding - and of course move it around as required. Without gravity, bone and muscle alike lost their prime function. After even a short time in orbit, some strange things begin to happen.

The first seems like good news: without the compressive force of gravity, your spinal column expands and you grow taller, usually by between 5 and 8 cm. Unfortunately, the extra height can bring complications, which may include backache and nerve problems. More worrying than height gain, though, is the loss of bone and muscle tissue that becomes apparent from the first few days of a space mission.

Bone is a living, dynamic tissue. In normal life, new bone cells are constantly being made while worn bone is destroyed and its materials recycled. Bone regeneration is governed by a complex system, regulated by hormones and vitamins as well as physical stress on various parts of the skeleton. In microgravity, the body has no need to maintain its skeletal structure to Earth-bound standards. So bone tissue is absorbed and not replaced: astronauts can lose up to 1% of their bone mass each month. The missing bone shows up as high calcium levels elsewhere in the body, which itself can lead to health problems - kidney stones, for example.

Microgravity bone loss stops soon after astronauts return to Earth, but so far, no one is sure whether the lost bone fully regenerates. The life science experiments planned for the ISS should help scientists learn much more precisely how bone loss comes about, and perhaps how to cure it. Since the problem is very similar to osteoporosis, a bone-wasting disease especially common among elderly women on Earth, astronauts will not be the only people to benefit from the research.

Exercise seems to have little effect on bone loss, but it does reduce muscle shrinkage and generally improves an astronaut's sense of well-being. It may also be essential to a mission: astronauts can move around inside the ISS with very little effort, but spacewalks - or even installing heavy equipment within the station - involve heavy work.

Most astronauts, at least once they get over any space sickness, report an initial exhilaration at their freedom from weight. They are all disciplined, highly trained people, too, who share a sense of being part of an elite team with important work ahead of them. So it is not surprising that psychological problems are unusual on short-duration space missions.

Sooner or later, though, despite the marvellous views and the sense of mission, astronauts do feel the pressure of confinement in what amounts to a few small rooms. One Russian cosmonaut wryly remarked, "All the conditions necessary for murder are met if you shut two men in a cabin measuring 5 metres by 6 and leave them together for two months."

Fortunately, no astronaut has ever come nearer murder than a little ill-temper. But Russian psychologists - with almost 90,000 flying hours aboard the old Mir station to provide their data - have learned a good deal about the psychology of long-term space flight. Generally, they observed their cosmonauts go through three distinct phases. During the first, which usually lasted about two months, people were busy adapting, usually successfully, to their new environment. In the second phase, their were clear signs of fatigue and low motivation. And in the final phase, cosmonauts could become hypersensitive, nervous and irritable - a group of symptoms the Russians called "asthenia".

Other than a return to Earth, there seems to be no instant cure. But an easier workload, coupled with frequent opportunities for private communication with families back home, are important morale boosters. ISS operations managers have learned a great deal from the Russian experience, which is one reason why duty tours aboard the station will normally be limited to six months.

Thank you for liking

You have already liked this page, you can only like it once!

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

The PMC website is updating on October 15, 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Int J Environ Res Public Health

The Living Space: Psychological Well-Being and Mental Health in Response to Interiors Presented in Virtual Reality

1 Lise Meitner Group for Environmental Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, 14195 Berlin, Germany; ed.gpm.nilreb-bipm@akutzs (I.M.S.); ed.gpm.nilreb-bipm@camidus (S.S.)

Izabela Maria Sztuka

Kira pohlmann.

2 Clinic and Policlinic for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany; [email protected]

Sonja Sudimac

Simone kühn, associated data.

Data is available from the corresponding authors upon request.

There has been a recent interest in how architecture affects mental health and psychological well-being, motivated by the fact that we spend the majority of our waking time inside and interacting with built environments. Some studies have investigated the psychological responses to indoor design parameters; for instance, contours, and proposed that curved interiors, when compared to angular ones, were aesthetically preferred and induced higher positive emotions. The present study aimed to systematically examine this hypothesis and further explore the impact of contrasting contours on affect, behavior, and cognition. We exposed 42 participants to four well-matched indoor living rooms under a free-exploration photorealistic virtual reality paradigm. We included style as an explorative second-level variable. Out of the 33 outcome variables measured, and after correcting for false discoveries, only two eventually confirmed differences in the contours analysis, in favor of angular rooms. Analysis of style primarily validated the contrast of our stimulus set, and showed significance in one other dependent variable. Results of additional analysis using the Bayesian framework were in line with those of the frequentist approach. The present results provide evidence against the hypothesis that curvature is preferred, suggesting that the psychological response to contours in a close-to-reality architectural setting could be more complex. This study, therefore, helps to communicate a more complete scientific view on the experience of interior spaces and proposes directions for necessary future research.

1. Introduction

Built (man-made) environments have become fundamental components of human existence. For the majority of our waking time, we navigate and interact with architectural environments while we live, connect, learn, work, and recreate. The spaces encountered in daily life vary in their physical and aesthetic properties, and may have an influence on affect, behavior, and cognition, and eventually impact mental health and psychological well-being [ 1 , 2 ]. These effects are likely the outcome of an interaction between the physical properties of the perceived space on the one hand, and the perceiver’s characteristics and the meaning they create on the other [ 3 , 4 , 5 ].

When accounting for the considerable time spent inside buildings, two-thirds of which is in dwellings [ 6 ], the glaring gap in linking variations in physical features of architecture to psychological states is surprising [ 7 , 8 ]. It has been previously suggested that this can be attributed to methodological and disciplinary incongruences between architecture and psychology [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Architectural research connecting the human response to design relies on philosophical constructs, whereas traditional psychological research investigating the human–environment relationship relies on observation and subjective measures [ 9 , 10 ]. A better understanding of the human–environment interaction could contribute to informing design strategies in ways to optimize psychological well-being and mental health [ 11 ]. Although the discussion has been initiated, a commonly accepted methodology across disciplines is still lacking [ 12 ].

A domain in which first successful attempts have been made to link architectural features to psychological responses in human beings concerns contours. We refer to contours here to describe the “edge or line that defines or bounds a shape or an object” [ 13 ]. The interest in the response to contours derived from empirical studies in various disciplines such as arts, aesthetics, visual cognition, and (social) psychology among others, which have reported differences in perception. Early studies from the first quarter of the 20th century have found that straight lines were associated with unpleasant “feeling tones” that denote strong motor expression (e.g., agitating, hard, furious, and serious), whereas curved ones were associated with adjectives indicating relatively more pleasantness and less movement (e.g., gentle, quiet, and lazy) [ 14 , 15 ]. Subsequent studies have investigated the hypothesis that curved/rounded/curvilinear conditions are more appealing to humans than angular/edgy/rectilinear ones. This hypothesis has been shown to be correct using different types of visual stimuli including lines [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ], font types [ 19 , 20 ], geometric shapes and simple forms [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ], irregular shapes and meaningless patterns [ 3 , 4 , 16 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ], images of familiar objects [ 3 , 26 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ], sketches of familiar objects [ 33 , 37 ], in addition to sketches and images of designed products [ 38 , 39 ]. Different studies have found the effect to be present across species humans and apes [ 35 ], cultures—Western vs. non-Western [ 14 , 16 , 19 , 24 , 29 , 35 , 38 , 39 , 40 ], and ages—toddlers [ 27 ] and infants [ 18 , 23 ]. However, the source of this preference is still under debate. Some researchers proposed that angularity conveys threat, suggesting that the preference reflects adaptive behavior [ 31 , 32 ]. Other research has attributed the observed effect to higher cognitive processes and susceptibility to the influence of semantic meaning and perceptual qualities that are not strictly limited to contour [ 35 ]. Conversely, additional studies proposed a “curvature effect” that was not linked to a negative response to angularity for what it affords but rather caused by intrinsic characteristics of the curved stimuli [ 29 ], with preference modulated by positive valence [ 34 ]. Moreover, other studies have investigated additional variables beyond simple curves and angles. Those included both properties of the stimuli—e.g., complexity [ 22 , 24 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 38 ], symmetry [ 24 , 36 ], balance [ 22 , 24 ], novelty/innovativeness [ 38 ], meaningfulness [ 26 , 29 ], typicality [ 38 , 39 ], familiarity [ 4 , 33 ], as well as individual differences of the perceivers—e.g., sex [ 3 , 27 , 30 ], expertise in art/design [ 3 , 4 , 24 , 33 , 38 ], academic degree [ 33 ], personality traits [ 3 , 22 , 33 ], cognitive styles [ 26 ], and neurological disorders such as autism [ 4 , 21 , 30 ], in an attempt to understand whether they affect or modulate contour perception. Different outcome measures have been used in previous studies, including forced-choice response [ 29 , 31 , 32 ], rating/visual analogue scales [ 4 , 16 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 24 , 29 , 30 , 33 , 37 , 39 ], and selection procedures [ 26 ], in addition to more implicit measures, such as association [ 14 , 17 , 20 , 25 , 28 ] and approach-avoidance tasks [ 3 , 16 , 28 , 36 ], reaction and/or viewing time [ 18 , 22 , 26 , 27 ], and observed postural behavior [ 21 ]. With regard to contours in the indoor environment, similar effects were proposed by the scarce set of studies available until now. Spaces with curvilinear/curved features, in comparison with those with angular/rectilinear ones, were preferred among different ages [ 41 ], and induced higher positive emotions such as pleasure [ 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 ], relaxation, safety, privacy [ 46 ], and a desire to approach [ 44 ]. The majority of these studies relied largely on subjective semantic scales, where stimuli were rated according to a limited list of paired opposite adjectives to depict emotional responses (i.e., valence, arousal, approach-avoidance, and some spatial properties). It is worth noting that the stimuli used, for the most part, did not reflect realistic environments. More recent research used different approaches and new experimental tools to investigate the architectural experience. The effect of contour on aesthetic judgment and approach-avoidance decisions was examined in one of the very first functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies to examine architectural perception [ 8 ]. Images of existing real-life indoor environments were presented for three seconds in the scanner, and participants rated each image and used a joystick to indicate whether they would like to enter or exit the environment. Results showed that curvilinear interiors were more likely judged as beautiful, compared to rectilinear ones. Moreover, they were found to activate the medial orbitofrontal cortex—titled as anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in the publication exclusively, which has previously been related to positive valence and pleasantness [ 47 ]. In contrast with previous fMRI evidence from studies investigating familiar objects [ 31 ], no amygdala activation for rectilinear spaces was found. Consequently, given the amygdala’s role in processing information related to fear and arousal [ 48 ], the results did not confirm the hypothesis of the threat effect evoked by angularity. Additionally, unlike what was hypothesized, contour did not affect approach-avoidance decisions. The stimulus set was partially tested in more recent studies that examined individual differences. Eight images were presented to experts and laypersons [ 49 ], and 80 to quasi-experts, individuals with autism spectrum condition (ASC), and a matched neurotypical group [ 4 ]. Results were not consistent across the different studies, with the latest one finding a preference for rectilinear spaces within all three groups. Two major setbacks may have caused the inconsistencies between the reported results. The first concerns the use of 2D images (static stimuli) to represent realistic environments and investigate a real-life experience [ 50 ], and the second relates to the fact that the stimuli were not well-matched. Creating controlled testing environments in which separate architectural design features can be altered and tested each at a time represents, in fact, one of the main challenges in quantifying the impact of design on human experience [ 7 ]. With the recent technological advancements in virtual reality (VR) and computer-aided design (CAD) software, it is now possible to develop experimental settings that can replicate the experience of a real environment under controlled conditions [ 51 , 52 ], while evoking similar user responses [ 53 , 54 ]. Combining human monitoring techniques with advanced VR environments can enable the acquisition of objective evidence for evaluating the human response to indoor design [ 9 , 52 , 55 ]. For example, one study investigated different interior form features using VR combined with electroencephalogram (EEG), during active exploration of empty white-colored virtual environments [ 10 ]. Results showed higher pleasure and arousal ratings and increased theta activity in the ACC when exploring curved geometries, as opposed to more linear ones. However, source localization of the EEG signal in the brain is a complex task with forward and inverse problems, calling the exact location of the source ACC into question. Another example study examined neurophysiological and behavioral responses during the appreciation of virtual environments, using EEG and explicit ratings of novelty, familiarity, comfort, pleasantness, and arousal [ 56 , 57 ]. Despite the fact that the two virtual rooms used in the studies represented contrasting contours (i.e., the “modern design” room had angular furniture, and the “cutting edge design” room displayed furniture with rounded edges), the researchers rather focused on style in their categorization of the stimuli. Whereas the interest of the study was not in finding a preferred environment, but rather to explore the relationship among each of the perceptual dimensions and correlate them with brain activity, modern and cutting edge environments were perceived, respectively, as more familiar and more novel, but no differences in ratings of pleasantness, arousal and comfort were reported. Taken as a whole, the evidence for curvature preference, although seemingly robust with abstract shapes and lines, is yet far from being confirmed in the context of indoor architecture, and requires further thorough investigations.

Another line of research exploring the response to built environments has investigated the restorative properties of indoor spaces. The attention restoration theory (ART) proposes that natural environments, filled with “soft fascinations”, could restore cognitive capacity, reduce mental fatigue, and increase focus and attention [ 58 ]. Being in restorative environments could, therefore, change negative states to positive ones. Building on the biophilia hypothesis, which suggests that humans have an innate connection with nature [ 59 ], a framework for biophilic design has emerged [ 60 ]. By bringing elements of nature into living spaces (directly or indirectly), positive effects might be initiated. Studies investigating biophilic interventions in virtual indoor environments have found a stress reduction and restorative effect [ 61 , 62 ].

Within the scope of the present study, we aimed to systematically examine the influence of contours (angular versus curved) in virtual indoor architectural settings on affect, behavior, and cognition. Given the significant time urban dwellers spend in the home environment, which has considerably increased since the COVID-19 outbreak in March 2020, we selected the residential space as the context of our present investigation. Interiors are considered a major part of architecture, more than ever in the revolutionary works of modernist architects who regarded interior spaces as the essence (e.g., Bruno Zevi, Hans Scharoun), highlighted the importance of furniture, and influenced modern furniture design (e.g., Alvar Aalto, Marcel Breuer). Furthermore, we wanted to account for the evidence that architectural style and layout influence the response to form [ 44 ], and to architecture per se, knowing that results of studies on the perception and evaluation of style are inconsistent [ 63 , 64 ]. Hence, we included style as an explorative second-level variable. Previous studies investigating aesthetic styles have used classifications such as modern/contemporary vs. classical [ 65 , 66 , 67 ] vs. traditional [ 68 ], among others. We opted for “modern vs. classic” for the interdisciplinary potential of the dichotomy. We refer to “classic” to denote the variant styles of the traditional abacus of architecture, up to the beginning of the 20th century [ 69 ]. “Modern”, on the other hand, refers to the architecture of both 20th and 21st centuries, starting from modernism and the stream of styles it inspired by completely breaking with the past [ 70 ].

As we aimed to delve deeper beyond the mere investigation of pleasantness, beauty, and arousal, our behavioral measures covered a larger set of affective and psychological dimensions, for a better overview of spatial perception. To inspect the impact of contour on cognition and restorativeness, we included a measure of perceived restored attention, building on the attention restoration theory (ART) [ 58 ], and a mental arithmetic task from the Trier social stress test [ 71 ], previously used in environmental VR studies [ 72 ]. We present here a new paradigm that allows the collection of both explicit and implicit measures of the human response to indoor environments while allowing for a close-to-reality experience. To the best of our knowledge, none of the previous studies have explored high-quality photorealistic, yet well-matched virtual stimuli representing contour contrasting conditions within a free-exploration setting, while controlling for style. Extending on the findings of the scarce studies inspecting contours in the architectural context [ 8 , 10 , 44 , 46 , 49 , 73 ] and the seemingly robust scientific and empirical evidence supporting curvature preference in other domains (references above), we expected curved conditions to positively impact the self-reported emotional and spatial experience, and to improve cognitive performance as well as the self-reported feeling of restorativeness.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. participants.

A sample size estimation using G*Power—version 3.1.9.7 (Dusseldorf University, Dusseldorf, Germany), resulted in the need for 36 participants to enable medium effect size. Due to the high potentiality of technical errors, and the increasing rate of cancelled sessions as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the recruitment process was kept open until reaching N = 36 individuals who provided usable complete sets of behavioral VR data. Eventually, 48 healthy adults were enrolled, aged between 18 and 40 years, with no severe visual impairments. Further inclusion criteria included fluency in German language and absence of diagnosed mental or neurodegenerative disorder or cognitive impairment. Subjects were recruited through the Castellum Database of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development in Berlin (MPIB) and an online platform ( https://www.ebay-kleinanzeigen.de/ ) and were compensated with 10 euros/h. All participants signed the consent form before the experiment.

2.2. Stimulus

Two pairs of living rooms were created for the purpose of the study ( Figure 1 ). Rooms of each pair were identical in their design, except that one had angular window openings, furniture, fixtures, accessories, patterns, and other specific details, while the other had curved counterparts. The main contrast between the pairs was style (classified under: modern vs. classic), with some differences in layout, furniture components, and materials, which were seen necessary to reflect the style. “Classic rooms” included features from the neo-classicism period (e.g., “ornamental” furniture of Louis XV and VI style; wallcovering; detailed door and windows; more objects in the room), while “modern rooms” followed the “less is more” principle (e.g., Ludwig Mies van der Rohe) in a minimal style (e.g., less detailed furniture, door and windows; less objects in the room). Moreover, the classic pair included elements of biophilic design (e.g., wood furniture, plants, images of plants, more surfaces with green color). The main challenge was to design objects/elements that reflect well-proportioned, yet matching counterparts in both contour versions, without causing a change to style or familiarity. Hence, furniture design was inspired from common pieces that exist in both contour versions, although changing contours or proportions of famous designer pieces was completely avoided. In order to control for additional confounding factors, rooms’ boundaries, ceiling, floor, door and windows locations, main seating positions, main light, and primary color (green) were kept identical between the pairs, in addition to the outdoor window view portraying a natural environment.

Virtual 3D environments, created for the study. Upper images display the modern style, and the bottom ones the classic style. Top left: angular modern (AM). Top right: curved modern (CM). Bottom left: angular classic (CA). Bottom right: curved classic (CC). Images were taken from the Unity project with a perspective that does not represent a human eye view, to show maximum coverage of the room.

The size of the virtual room was similar to the MPIB VR lab space dimensions and fixed accordingly to (L × W × H = 4.9 × 3.9 × 3 m) so that free movement was possible during participants’ exploration. Three-dimensional models of all the objects and details of the rooms were created using 3Ds Max—version Theseus, 2020 (Autodesk Inc., Mill Valley, CA, USA), and the paradigm with all the tasks was implemented using the gaming software Unity—version 2019.2.1f1, 64-bit (Unity Technologies, San Francisco, CA, USA). The rooms were rendered in real-time during the experiment, using Unity High Definition Render Pipeline (HDRP, version 6.9.1) and were displayed with Steam VR (Valve Corporation, Bellevue, WA, USA)—multiple updates during experiment, no standing version to report, through an HTC Vive Pro headset (HTC corporation, New Taipei, Taiwan), connected to a wireless adapter to allow for unobstructed movement. In order to increase immersion, a real physical large couch was included in the set-up, positioned at the same location as in the virtual rooms. Participants could use it within their exploration time, and were asked to sit on it to perform the cognitive tasks ( Figure 2 ).

Virtual reality (VR) laboratory set up. Left side: VR setup in pilot session, participant about to start responding to rating scales. The physical couch is shown on the right side of the participant. Middle: general layout showing the virtual space in relation to the actual laboratory conditions, experimenter position, physical couch position, starting point of each exploration task, and virtual screens that appear successively during the paradigm. Top right: teleportation room, presented at the start of the VR session, and in between each of the rooms. Bottom right: training room, simulating the laboratory appearance.

Additionally, a virtual training room was created, simulating the lab appearance ( Figure 2 ) including the physical couch, with one version having angular edges (for the couch, lighting fixture, and door accessories), while the other had curved counterparts.

As the study comprised a within-subject design, all participants were tested under all conditions in randomized order, always starting with the training room. Participants with odd ID numbers were first exposed to the training room with curved features, while those with even IDs were assigned to the one with angular ones. Using counterbalancing through a Latin square design, and after eliminating sequences where rooms of the same pair would have been shown successively, four groups were identified, to which participants were randomly assigned: Group A (AM, AC, CM, CC); Group B (AC, CM, CC, AM); Group C (CM, CC, AM, AC); and Group D (CC, AM, AC, CM), where AM is “angular modern”, CM is “curved modern”, AC is “angular classic”, and CC is “curved classic”.

2.3. Measures

The main part of the experimental paradigm consisted of the VR session. In each room, participants started exploring the virtual space for 3 min, followed by a 2-min cognitive task in a sitting position, and responded to a set of questions. Multiple questionnaires were administered before and after the VR session (we mention below only those included within the present analyses).

2.3.1. Questionnaires

The in-VR questionnaires included two sections assessing respectively the affective and spatial experience (ASE), and momentary affective state (MAS). ASE consisted of 20 items related to the subjective perception of emotional and spatial dimensions. Participants provided self-reports on 20 bipolar (−5 = “describes strongly”, 0 = “neutral”, 5 = “describes strongly”) dimensions using 11-point numeric scales, tagged by two opposite descriptive adjectives on each of the sides. Dimensions encompassed valence, arousal, and dominance, but also covered other spatial aspects (e.g., organization, spatiality, naturalness), and were retrieved from previous studies [ 7 , 8 , 56 , 74 ], with some additions that were found to be relevant to the study ( Table S1 ). All anchor adjectives were translated to German, for the purpose of this experiment. MAS was assessed using 11-point intensity rating scales for 11 dimensions (original German version used in previous studies [ 75 ]). The dimensions assess different domains: emotional feelings, bodily sensation, valence and arousal, and cognitive and motivational states ( Table S2 ). The first 6 scales were unipolar (0 = “little”, 5 = “neutral”, 10 = “very”), followed by 5 bipolar scales tagged by one to four descriptive adjectives as anchors (−5 = “describes strongly”, 0 = ”neutral”, 5 = “describes strongly”). A pre-measure was also collected before the VR session to control for the baseline affective state. In sum, participants responded to 31 dimensions, in-VR, after exposure to each of the rooms, with a total of 155 questions (including the training room).

As part of the post-VR PC-based questionnaire, subjects reported on more aspects of the virtual, spatial, and cognitive experience. Perceived restorativeness (PR) was measured using an adapted 12-item German version of the Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRS) [ 76 ], under four categories: fascination, being away, coherence, and scope ( Table S3 ). Each item was rated on a five-point Likert scale from 0 (not at all) to 4 (completely).

2.3.2. Cognitive Task (CT)

Cognitive performance was evaluated using the results of an in-VR two-minute skip counting task [ 72 ]. After exploring each of the simulated conditions, participants were asked to keep subtracting 13 from a starting 4-digit number that was shown on a virtual screen and to pronounce the intermediate results out loud. When participants made mistakes they were prompted to start anew from the same starting number. The sequence of numbers was the same for all participants, and answers were collected manually by experimenters. Individual scores were calculated by dividing the total number of correct answers (in all attempts) by the number of attempts.

2.3.3. Additional Measures

To evaluate the overall VR experience, and control for specific undesired effects, cyber-sickness was measured using an adapted German version of the Simulation Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) [ 77 ], administered both pre and post-VR sessions. SSQ consists of 16 items based on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (symptom not existent) to 3 (very severe symptom), which can be computed into three representative subscores: Nausea-related (N), Oculomotor-related (O), Disorientation-related (D), in addition to a Total Score (TS) representing the overall severity of cybersickness experienced by participants. Moreover, presence was assessed using the iGroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ) [ 78 ]—adapted from the German version available online ( www.igroup.org , Accessed on 15 September 2020) administered post-VR. IPQ contains 14 items rated on a five-point Likert scale (1–5) tagged with different anchors, according to the four sub-scales that measure different components of presence: General Presence (GP), Spatial Presence (SP), Involvement (INV), and Experienced Realism (REAL). Both SSQ and IPQ were administered right after the VR session, as part of the post-VR questionnaire. Additionally, we collected information related to demographics and other individual differences that are beyond the scope of the present analyses.

2.4. Procedure

All experimental sessions were conducted in the VR lab at the MPIB (November to December 2020), in compliance with the institute’s COVID-19 regulations for lab hygiene. The experiment was composed of three parts: (1) pre-VR questionnaires and preparation; (2) immersive session; and, (3) post-VR questionnaires and tasks. Participants received the consent form via email before the day of the experiment. They were encouraged to read and sign the form, and to fill in the pre-VR questionnaire before coming to the lab, otherwise, those were completed on the day of the experiment. Upon arrival, participants were presented with an introduction to the study, filled a PC-based questionnaire to collect baseline measures for the affective state and simulation sickness symptoms, and performed a short training session on the cognitive task. Next, they were prepared for the VR session. Details were described thoroughly, the head-mounted display (HMD) was put on with the help of the research assistance staff, and subjects were guided to stand in the teleportation areas next to the room door. The VR session started with an empty teleportation room showing instructions for 20 s, followed by the training room, for familiarization with all in-VR tasks. Each room was simulated for 3 min of free exploration, and participants were encouraged to explore as they needed to, until they felt they could later recognize the room from a photo. At the end of the exploration time, a message was shown at eye level with a message to sit on the couch. Instructions for the cognitive task were displayed on a screen at the wall facing the couch, and when participants confirmed readiness, the starting number was shown. Answers were manually written down by the experimenter, who prompted the participant to “restart” after a wrong number was named, until a “stop” sign was shown at the end of the 2 min. Later, a screen appeared in the middle of the room with instructions on how to answer the questionnaire using the controller. Once all questions were answered, participants were asked to leave the controller on the couch and go to the teleportation spot at the door. The sequence of events and tasks is displayed in Figure 3 (upper side). The process was repeated for all rooms, with the teleportation instruction room presented for 20 s in between. At the end of the immersive session, a sign was shown at eye level indicating “the end”, HMD was dismantled, and participants took a break. The third part of the experiment included the PC-based questionnaire in addition to further tasks that were not used for the present data analysis. Details of the experimental paradigm are displayed in Figure 3 .

Details of the experimental paradigm. Bottom: The bar shows all phases of the experiment (pre-VR, immersive, and post-VR sessions) along with the respective approximate duration. The mentioned durations are based on the average of the time spent by different participants. Up: The upper layouts display the sequence of events denoting tasks and instructions in each of the virtual environments. Room AM (angular modern) is displayed in a top view layout as an example. The average duration in each virtual room was 12 min (with an approximate total of 60 min). Some events were fixed and had a predefined time (e.g., teleportation room, exploration tasks, cognitive task), while others depended on the participant’s speed (e.g., reading cognitive task instructions and readiness to start, rating tasks, moving back to teleportation spot). Q1 and tasks in the last section mentioned as “other tasks” are excluded from the present analyses. Note: SSQ = simulation sickness questionnaire, IPQ = IGroup presence questionnaire and PRS = perceived restorativeness scale.

2.5. Data Analysis

We preregistered our research plan, which can be retrieved from ( https://aspredicted.org/vp93z.pdf , Accessed on 23 February 2021). During data preprocessing, sessions with technical software/hardware errors, and those where participants requested breaks or showed severe symptoms of simulation sickness were excluded. Out of the 48 participants enrolled, a range of 36–40 (85.36% born in Germany; ASE and MAS: F = 25, M = 16; CT: F = 27, M = 15; PRS: F = 23, M= 13) were included in the analyses ( Table S4 ).

Self-reports assessed with questionnaires (MAS, ASE, PRS) in addition to the cognitive task scores were analyzed using paired samples two-tailed t -tests to examine differences in contour (angular vs. curved) and style (modern vs. classic). When the normality assumption was not met, instead of paired sample t -tests, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used. Statistical tests were performed separately for each of the dimensions of the ASE and MAS. For ease of reference, we will be referring to rooms according to their condition in the following parts of the paper (e.g., angular rooms, classic rooms, etc.).

Considering that we collected 33 separate outcome variables, and conducted two different tests with each (angular vs. curved, modern vs. classic), eventually we had to conduct 66 frequentist statistical tests. When performing multiple statistical tests, one should take into account that setting the alpha value to 0.05 will result in 5/100 significant results purely by chance, in our case 3.3 significant tests. According to the Bonferroni correction method, which strongly controls for family-wise error rate, the critical value for each comparison is the type I error rate divided by the number of comparisons: α/k = 0.05/66 = 0.00076. However, we also checked for the false discovery rate (FDR) correction, as the Bonferroni correction has been considered overly conservative [ 79 ]. FDR correction controls for the proportion of “discoveries” (significant results) that are false positives.

To examine if the observed non-significant results in the frequentist approach represent an absence of the predicted relation between room contour and dependent variables measuring mood and cognition, we examined the amount of evidence in favor of the null hypothesis using the Bayesian framework [ 80 ]. The BF 01 in the Bayesian framework indicates how much more likely it is that the data occur given the null hypothesis.

The analyses within the frequentist approach were conducted using R Studio—v1.4 Tiger Daylily (RStudio, Boston, MA, USA), and Bayesian analyses using JASP—version 0.14.1.0 (University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands).

3.1. Behavioral Measures

3.1.1. affective and spatial experience (ase).

The paired-samples t -test revealed that participants rated angular rooms higher compared to curved rooms on dimensions novelty ( t (40) = 3.95, p < 0.001), order ( t (40) = 6.20, p < 0.001) and symmetry ( t (40) = 2.13, p = 0.039), whereas curved rooms were rated as more exciting ( Z = 2.01, p = 0.044) and harmonious than angular rooms ( t (40) = −2.39, p = 0.022).

Regarding the room style, modern rooms were perceived as more novel ( Z = 5.31, p < 0.001), more simple ( t (40) = 6.26, p < 0.001), more ordered ( t (40) = 2.78, p = 0.008) and more spacious ( Z = 2.49, p = 0.013) compared to classic rooms, while the latter were rated as warmer ( t (40) = −3.23, p = 0.002) and more enclosed ( Z = −1.45, p = 0.014) than modern rooms.

We found no statistically significant difference in any of the dimensions: pleasantness, beauty, lightness, calmness, brightness, comfort, cheerfulness, liveliness, familiarity, experience, and naturalness neither for contour nor style comparisons. Participants’ responses on the affective and spatial dimensions are illustrated in Figure 4 .

Display of participants’ responses to the bipolar dimensions of the affective and spatial experience questionnaire. The scales were converted from (−5, 0, 5) to (1–11) for analysis and display purposes. Individual scores were calculated based on averaging responses to every two rooms presenting the same condition, and the charts’ scores represent means on each of the dimensions. Plot ( a ) displays results for contour conditions (angular vs. curved), and plot ( b ) shows results of style conditions (modern vs. curved). Significant dimensions are marked with asterisks (*** for p < 0.001, ** for p < 0.01, and * for p < 0.05) and are written in black color for ease of reference. These graphics were created in R Studio, using package fmsb (Minato Nakazawa, 2021, Available on https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/fmsb/index.html ).

3.1.2. Momentary Affective State (MAS)

Contrary to our hypothesis, we did not find any effects of contour on momentary affective states. Moreover, Bayesian factors show that the evidence for no effect ranges from anecdotal evidence for a null result for contour effect on the self-report of being active (BF 01 = 1.16), to moderate evidence for a null result in the case of self-reported fear (BF 01 = 8.41). Similarly, there was no effect of style on momentary affective state, and Bayes factors span from anecdotal evidence for the absence of the style effect—on the heartbeat (BF 01 = 2.00) up to moderate evidence—in the case of alertness (BF 01 = 5.37). Participants’ responses are shown in Figure 5 .

Display of participants’ responses to the momentary affect questionnaire. Emotional feelings and bodily sensation were rated on unipolar scales (0–10), while arousal and valence (tension, activity, positivity) and cognitive (alertness) and motivational (interest) states ratings were presented on bipolar scales (−5, 0, 5). Both scales were converted to (1–11) for analysis and display purposes. Individual scores were calculated based on averaging responses to every two rooms presenting the same condition, and the charts’ scores represent means on each of the dimensions. Plot ( a ) displays results for contour conditions (angular vs. curved), and plot ( b ) shows results of style conditions (modern vs. classic). These graphics were created in R Studio, using package fmsb (Minato Nakazawa, 2021, Available on: https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/fmsb/index.html ).

3.1.3. Perceived Restorativeness (PR)

There was no difference in self-reported restored attention after having been immersed in angular compared to curved rooms— t (35) = −0.79, p = 0.436, nor in modern compared to classic rooms— t (35) = −0.94, p = 0.352. Bayesian factor indicates that there was anecdotal evidence in favor of an absence of effect of contour (BF 01 = 2.7) and moderate evidence of absence of style effect on perceived restorativeness (BF 01 = 3.7).

3.2. Cognitive Task (CT)

In line with the behavioral data, we found no effect of contour ( Z = −0.43, p = 0.667) or room style ( Z = 0.59, p = 0.552) on cognitive performance. The evidence in favour of null results is moderate for both contour (BF 01 = 5.12) and style (BF 01 = 4.79) effects on cognitive performance.

3.3. Virtual Reality (VR) Experience

A paired sample Wilcoxon signed-rank test indicated a significant increase of the overall cybersickness symptoms experienced by participants ( Z = 4.5423, p < 0.001) from pre- ( Mdn = 7.48, IQR = 22.44) to post- measurements ( Mdn = 26.18, IQR = 29.92) ( Table S5 ). This suggests that the total stay in VR increased the simulation sickness symptoms. We calculated a (post-pre) total score and performed additional analyses to control for the effect of simulation sickness on participants’ responses. However, no main effects were found.

IPQ scores were computed for each of the subscales. On a 1–5 scale, mean scores were respectively GP ( M = 3.93, SD = 0.91), SP ( M = 3.44, SD = 0.63), INV ( M = 3.27, SD = 0.98), and REAL ( M = 2.68, SD = 0.47), indicating above medium values for all the subscales, and an acceptable feeling of presence.

3.4. Additional Analyses

Out of the 66 frequentist tests we conducted, we expected 3.3 to be significant by pure chance. However, five returned significance in contour comparison, and six in style (marked with asterisks in Table 1 and Table 2 ). When applying the Bonferroni method, with the corrected threshold of p < 0.00076, four tests survived the correction: novelty and order in contour comparison in favor of angular rooms, in addition to novelty and simplicity in favor of modern rooms when comparing style. However, when applying a less stringent correction method, the FDR correction, warmth remains significant in style comparison with classic rooms perceived as warmer than modern ones.

Results of the statistical analyses performed on contour conditions using a classical frequentist approach and a Bayesian approach, in addition to the central tendency. Where data is normally distributed, means with standard deviation, and Student t -test results are reported. In the case of unmet normality assumption, we report median and IQR, and Wilcoxon signed-rank test results. Effect sizes and alternative hypotheses are also shown for each of the outcome measures.

1 Rows in bold indicate statistically significant outcome measures (bolded for ease of reference). Significance is also marked with asterisks next to p -values.

Results of the statistical analyses performed on style conditions using a classical frequentist approach and a Bayesian approach, in addition to the central tendency. Where data are normally distributed, means with standard deviation, and Student t -test results are reported. In the case of unmet normality assumption, we report median and IQR, and Wilcoxon signed-rank test results. Effect sizes and alternative hypotheses are also shown for each of the outcome measures.

In line with the frequentist approach findings and the FDR correction, the harmonic mean of the Bayesian factors BF 01 only indicated strong evidence for the alternative hypothesis (<0.1) in the case of the five aforementioned dimensions in the respective comparisons. All statistical tests and Bayes factors are reported in Table 1 and Table 2 .

4. Discussion

Within the scope of the present study, we primarily examined the potential psychological response to indoor virtual living rooms with contrasting contour conditions (angular and curved) on affect, behavior, and cognition. Such findings would contribute to understanding the relationship between humans and the built environments they occupy, and would inform the design of therapeutic settings in ways to optimize cognitive functioning, physical and mental health, and well-being. The very few studies that have investigated these conditions in indoor architectural settings have used for that purpose either photos of existing spaces [ 4 , 8 , 49 ], computer-generated three-dimensional images in color [ 45 ] and greyscale [ 44 ], sketches and line drawings [ 46 ], or schematic virtual environments where the overall form of the room was manipulated [ 10 , 73 ]. Most of these studies reported a preference for, and higher positive emotion in curved/curvilinear conditions as opposed to angular/rectilinear/linear ones (references above), with more recent studies reporting an opposite effect [ 4 ]. This may be the result of problems that are prominent to this new field of study [ 12 ], among which is a lack of systematic development of a coherent theoretical and experimental framework [ 57 ]. We took several measures in an attempt to address some of the methodological shortcomings of previous studies. The first one concerns the nature of the stimuli. For that, we ensured that the virtual environments presented are fully matched in terms of contour contrast, and avoided the possible effects of other confounding variables (e.g., lighting conditions, outside view, room size, floor finish, ceiling height and finish, door location and size, and so on). All these variables were kept identical in all four simulated rooms. Moreover, we included a second level-variable, architectural style, so that we presented to participants a variety that could cover different aesthetic preferences, noting that findings of previous studies were inconsistent with regard to preference. The second shortcoming is related to the lack of real-life architectural experience in previous studies and the predominant use of static stimuli. Therefore, we opted for a VR set-up that stimulates 3D rather than 2D perception, with a free-exploration paradigm and no restrictions on the path; subjects were able to explore the space from different viewing angles, whether standing, sitting, or crouching to see a specific detail. Moreover, we presented high-quality and detailed immersive environments, which were created via high-definition photorealistic instant renderings and post-processing methods (videos of the room can be found on https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1rIPx0GBHubAsQaWxBWnkY7odOPXn_yiL , Accessed on 19 September 2021). However, we respected the recommended guidelines to reduce VR-induced symptoms and effects by providing high-quality graphics and ensuring that the immersive session did not exceed the recommended maximum duration [ 81 ]. Moreover, we familiarized all our participants with the VR system by means of a training session. Third, with regard to outcome measures, we aimed to extend beyond the limited conventional ratings of valence and arousal, criticized by some as not representative of the spatial aesthetic experience [ 53 ]. Hence, we included a relatively large set of affective, behavioral, and cognitive measures. Extending from previous evidence on the curvature preference and positive affective effects in both non-architectural and architectural settings, we expected the curved conditions to positively influence momentary affect, emotional and spatial experience, cognitive performance, and perceived restorativeness.

To our surprise, we did not find relevant positive effects of contour in most of the outcome measures, although the study had a comparably large sample size (e.g., N = 18 [ 8 ], 17 [ 10 ], 71 × two groups [ 49 ]). In fact, the only differences observed between the two contrasting conditions, after correcting for false discoveries, favored angular versions on “novelty” and “order” ratings. This finding stands in contrast to some experimental studies where ratings of pleasantness, attractiveness/beauty, and arousal indicated more positive responses to curved rather angular conditions (e.g., [ 8 , 44 , 46 , 49 ]). In particular, we were surprised that in our analysis, differences in self-reports on both “pleasantness” and “beauty” were statistically insignificant. While results indicated a non-significant trend in the predicted direction indicating higher pleasantness ratings for rooms with curvature, the Bayes factor indicated no evidence in this direction. As for beauty, ratings’ means were very similar in both conditions. This is in line with a previous study, where contour had no effect on beauty judgments in laypeople [ 49 ]. We also did not find any differences in ratings of arousal dimensions neither in ASE nor in MAS (e.g., excitement, liveliness, calmness, interest, tension, heartbeat, alertness, activity). In terms of momentary affect in general, our results mainly indicated no evidence for the threat hypothesis, as ratings on “fear” were at the lower extreme in both conditions. As a matter of fact, all scores on negative affect were considerably low (e.g., shame, anger, sadness), while all items related to positive dimensions in both MAS and ASE were above average (considering 6 is the midpoint of the 1–11 scale) for both conditions. This effect is consistent with a previous study [ 56 , 57 ], where no differences were reported on valence (pleasantness, comfort) and arousal dimensions between simulated furnished rooms (cutting edge with rounded furniture and modern with angular edges), albeit those were highly rated when compared to an empty room. One could think that participants reported a pleasant experience in all of the furnished rooms because they were impressed by the degree of realism in those, or by the virtual experience per se. But then the effect would drop after “affective habituation” [ 82 ]. As response bias was proposed as a function of presentation order in lengthy sequential preference judgments [ 83 ], we controlled for the stimulus presentation sequence and found no main effects. We also did not find any differences in perceived restorativeness, nor in cognitive performance, while Bayes’ factors showed poor evidence of the alternative hypothesis.

In our exploratory analyses of style, results primarily validated our stimuli’s second-level contrast with modern rooms being rated significantly higher than classic ones on the “traditional/novel” scale. This effect was reconfirmed within the Bayesian analysis which indicated strong evidence for the alternative hypothesis. No main difference in the general assessment of style on positive or negative affect or aesthetic value measures was observed, consistent with some previous studies [ 63 , 65 , 66 , 67 ], except for complexity and warmth, in favor of classic rooms. While the results of complexity ratings confirmed some previous findings [ 67 ], and could be argued as a natural result of the classical style being inclusive of more details (e.g., ornaments) in its principles, the slight difference in the color palette between the two styles could be a confounding factor in the case of warmth. On the other hand, the inclusion of more “green” or “biophilic” features did not impact ratings on naturalness or perceived restorativeness. We also find this surprising as these elements are considered within the biophilic design framework. No other effect of style was found in any of the other outcome variables. Future studies primarily investigating architectural style should aim at maximizing the control for confounding variables by providing well-matched high and low-level properties.

Comparing our almost null results in terms of contour comparison to previous findings of studies that investigated indoor environments and familiar objects, it could be explained by several points. The first concerns the relatively extended viewing time in our study (3 min of exploration time), when compared with previous ones, which mostly relied on gut reactions, by either presenting the stimuli very shortly (84 to 3000 ms) (e.g., [ 8 , 31 ]), or by instructing participants to immediately respond without thinking (e.g., [ 44 ]). Previous investigations have found that preference for curved stimuli, which was pronounced under limited times (84 to 150 ms), faded when the stimulus was displayed until response. This finding was replicated with images of real objects [ 26 , 35 ] and abstract shapes [ 29 ]. An influence of meaning and semantic content on preference was suggested. In fact, when presenting the same images of indoor environments until response, effects were not consistent with previous studies [ 4 , 10 , 46 ], and a preference for rectilinear interiors was actually found across the three groups of participants in the most recent study: individuals with autism spectrum condition, neurotypical adults, and design and art students. Another point to consider concerns the use of forced-choice dichotomous scales in some of the previous studies reporting the preference of curved conditions (e.g., beautiful/not beautiful, or like/dislike). The lack of a response options in the middle might have boosted the preference response, as proposed by some researchers, when interpreting the different effects found in their study investigating abstract shapes [ 29 ]. We opted for a psychometric 11-point scale to allow for undecided responses. The third point relates to the fact that most of the previous research investigating contour, in general, has targeted similar populations, particularly female participants and psychology students [ 30 ], causing limitations in terms of generalizing results. However, we included a rather heterogeneous sample, recruited via more diversified databases. Last but not least, additional potential reasons concern the cultural and individual differences between the populations of the different studies. Culture was proposed to effect aesthetic preference and sensitivity, with the latter suggested change over time, exposure, and perspective [ 3 ]. From an architecture point of view, interiors, with the potential affordances (see James Gibson) they create, host the complex interaction between specific atmospheres shaped by different spatial compositions, the perceiver’s characteristics, and their interpretation [ 5 ]. A probabilistic model of aesthetic response was proposed to explain the ongoing interaction between humans and their physical environments [ 50 ], and identified, in addition to design attributes, a series of factors including biology, personality, social and cultural experience, goals, expectations, associations, and internal constructs. These factors are suggested to contribute to the aesthetic response, impacting affect, physiological response, and behavior. The model acknowledged the complexity of the architectural experience, and further highlighted the major limitation caused by the neglect of the human movement’s influence on the spatial experience in studies that use static stimuli. More than two decades after its publication, most of the known effects still relate to static stimuli rather than real-life experiences.

Even though recent research is targeting inter-individual differences in shape preferences in spaces and objects’ contexts, the role of individual measures on preference is as yet uncertain, requiring further investigations [ 33 , 84 ]. However, when looking closely at previous studies, an interesting sex effect appears. While a curvature preference was observed when the sample predominantly consisted of female psychology, art, and design students [ 44 , 49 ], environments with rectilinear properties were preferred when the sample had a prevalence of male (design students, neurotypical or autistic participants) [ 49 ]. The same set of images showed a preference for curved interiors when the sample size consisted of more females than males [ 8 , 49 ]. The authors interpreted the preference for rectilinear spaces in their study as the result of familiarity, which was previously found to be relevant for preference formation [ 34 , 38 ], although other studies investigating drawings of familiar objects have found it to modulate preference for curvature [ 33 ]. The sex effect was also found when presenting sketches of familiar objects, where females judged curvilinear objects as more peaceful than males [ 37 ]. Additionally, another recent study presenting abstract shapes as stimuli has found that curvature preference was stronger for female students in psychology [ 30 ]. This effect was potentially attributed to gender rather than biological determinants. In this present study, post hoc analyses showed a sex effect, however, beyond the preference of one of the conditions over the other (Post-hoc)). Namely, when looking solely at angular rooms, males performed better than females in the cognitive task. Additionally, they rated those rooms higher than females on six out of the 20 affective and spatial dimensions, and reported higher scores on positive affect after exploring them. Although such results could possibly hint at a higher appreciation of angularity in males, this finding is to be interpreted cautiously for many reasons. First, our sample was not balanced in terms of sex and consisted of females more than males. Second, higher scores related to angular conditions do not necessarily indicate the preference of a shape over the other. This suggests that future works could benefit from including equally sized sex groups.

However, there are some limitations to the present study. Although the stimuli were still presented during rating tasks, the evaluation time was relatively long (3 min of exploration vs. an average of 9 min for CT and self-reports). Participants had to provide ratings in each room for 31 questions. This might have caused an effect known as the “museum-fatigue effect” [ 85 ], which has been found in many experimental observations and laboratory experiments. Causes were originally attributed to fatigue, but later to other cognitive factors such as satisfaction, information overload, and limitations in attentional capacity [ 83 ]. In terms of momentary affect, we had selected a scale that includes a broad range of negative emotions, to evaluate the threat hypothesis previously proposed [ 31 ]. However, participants scored very low on negative emotions and used more of the given scale for questions that offered both positive and negative anchors. In future studies, more focus should be directed to positive emotions. Concerning cognitive performance, the selected task was stress-inducing, which is why it is part of the Trier stress test. Although it had proven efficacy in previous studies investigating physical environments [ 72 ], it could be that the stress induced by the task might have overlapped the possible effects of contours.

Future studies may want to focus more strongly on implicit measures of emotions, less stress-inducing cognitive tasks, a lower number of outcome variables, and a more positive set of emotions. Sex could be further explored through the selection of a well-balanced sample. One route is to examine inter-individual differences, which include personality traits and expertise in arts and design. However, more differences should be taken into account, such as cultural background, previous experience with VR, information on familiar and lived architectural environments, among others.

5. Conclusions

In summary, while the evidence for curved contour preference in the context of abstract shapes and lines seems robust, it does not appear to be as strong in architectural settings, as multiple studies fail to demonstrate or replicate findings. The present study addressed previous limitations and found that exposure to contrasting contours in virtual interiors within a heterogeneous sample did not elicit significant differences in response to a broad set of psychological dimensions, with tasks and questionnaires administered directly after free exploration, yet within the virtual space, to record an immediate response. The fact that we assessed multiple domains during a close-to-reality architectural experience of fully controlled stimuli, not finding major effects in any of them, makes the study the most comprehensive in the field until now. This suggests that the psychological response to indoor design is much more complex and cannot be reduced into a generalized effect of contour or style, and could involve further multifaceted layers that affect the judgment of spaces on a more individual and contextual level. These results will help to convey a more real-life perspective of the response to the architectural experience in experimental settings and highlight the necessity of further investigations by providing directions for future research.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Rami Saad Architects (Beirut, Lebanon) for offering the 3D modeling of objects and furniture.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ijerph182312510/s1 , Table S1: Affective and spatial experience (ASE) dimensions with their respective domains, along with the tagged descriptive adjectives and numeric scales, Table S2: Momentary affective state (MAS) dimensions with their respective domains, along with the tagged descriptive adjectives and numeric scales, Table S3: Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRS) items, along with the respective original subscales they represent, Table S4: Included/excluded participants for each set of measures, along with reasons for exclusion, Table S5: Scores on the SSQ, including the three subscales (Nausea, Oculomotor disturbance, and Disorientation), in addition to the total score, Post-hoc: Exploratory analysis of sex, Videos: Short videos inside the rooms

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.K., N.T. and I.M.S.; methodology, S.K. and N.T.; software, K.P.; formal analysis, S.S. and N.T.; investigation, N.T. and I.M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, N.T.; writing—review and editing, S.K.; visualization, N.T.; supervision, S.K.; project administration, N.T., stimulus design, N.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Local Psychological Ethics Committee of the psychosocial center at Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf protocol code LPEK-0215 20 October 2020.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Living Space

By Imtiaz Dharker

‘Living Space’ reveals the strength in fragility, transforming a dilapidated home into a symbol of enduring hope.

Imtiaz Dharker

Nationality: Pakistani

She has written seven books of poetry, such as Luck is the Hook.

Poem Analyzed by Connie Smith

M.A. in English and Creative Writing from Northern Kentucky University

‘Living Space’ is a poem penned by Imtiaz Dharker that expresses physical poverty in the form of a poorly constructed home. As basic as this notion might seem, Dharker does not just discuss the structural integrity (or lack thereof) of the home in question. Instead, she uses that rundown home as a springboard to comment on those who are in poverty—something that is beyond the objects that showcase poverty. We, as readers, are introduced to the financial circumstance through the home, but by the end of ‘ Living Space’ , we have exchanged the literal for figurative to reveal that the poem was always meant as a commentary on people rather than things, both their present states and their future possibilities.

Analysis of  Living Space

There are just not enough straight lines. That is the problem.

The beginning of ‘ Living Space’ is so distinctly to-the-point that the reader automatically has insight on why there is a problem, even before the problem itself is addressed. Dharker could have begun the poem by focusing on the home in a more direct way, but the decision to first give information regarding the reason behind the home’s faults speaks volumes to what she is trying to say. Before the reader can know that any fault exists in the structure of this building, he needs to understand that the fault has a definite explanation and cause.

Things are not just abandoned or neglected in the home. Those kinds of rundown issues could logically be blamed on the people living there who refuse to care for it in the way it needs. Rather, it is the very structure that is the problem—the lack of “straight lines” —that causes the dilemma . In order to fix a home where the structure is off in such a way, a largescale renovation or a rebuild would be in order, and these are things out of reach for someone who cannot afford grand fixes. In essence, Dharker is saying, “don’t blame us,” before she further addresses details of the home, almost as a disclaimer. On a grander scale for poverty, this could be taken as an indication that the problem of poverty is bigger than those who are impoverished and includes things that they cannot fix themselves.

Nothing is flat (…) thrust off the vertical.

Still, in these lines of ‘ Living Space’ , the focus remains at first on the structure being the blame rather than the residents of the home. What can someone with limited resources do when their home is not “flat or parallel” in order to make it steady and strong? The answer could understandably be nothing, and once Dharker has solidified that the issue is based in structure and form beyond the family’s reach, she is ready to start describing more specific details of the home.

She begins this transformation by still building on the notion of structure—things that would be done to combat the poor structure, like “Beams balanced crookedly” —like she is easing the reader into other aspects that without these underlying structural issues might have come across as a lack of care or effort from the residents of the home. It is a step-by-step process, and now that she has discussed what might be the most visible means of fighting that structural battle, she is ready to move on to the more trivial parts of the home.

Nails clutch at open seams. The whole structure leans dangerously towards the miraculous.

This series of lines begins with the tiny idea of “Nails,” expressing yet another—but smaller-scale—issue of the home that an onlooker might think critically of, but there is something deeper to be seen in that very first line of this set. Those “Nails clutch at open seams.” The choice of the verb, “clutch,” is drastically important because it implies holding on tightly, like in desperation. In regard to a home that is falling to pieces, it would make sense that a feeling of desperation exists therein because so much of the residents’ lives are fragile from their financial capabilities.

But those nails are not falling downward. Rather, they are connected to “open seams , ” which can give the reader the feeling of possibility, like an “open” world where more can be accomplished. Together then, that one line showcases the idea that the people living in the home are desperately holding to the idea that things will improve, that they are “clutch[ing] at open” potential of a future that is better than where they currently stand. In the midst of this disarray, there is hope.

That concept is reflected again in the last two lines of the arrangement since the setup “leans dangerously towards the miraculous.” If the reader attempts to apply this wording in a literal sense, it could come across as an insult, like the very idea that the house standing is amazing because there is no logical reason as to why it should be. Figuratively, the statement reflects the notion that something brighter can happen in the days to come, but it takes that notion a step further. The poor state of the home is not just something that can be overcome. It is also something that can be used as inspiration to do more. This idea is evident in the verb choice for “leans” since that verb reveals the “whole structure” is pointing at “something miraculous.” The current state “leans…towards” the future, as in the situation can provide the motivation to overcome and strive for something better.

Lines 10-22

Into this rough frame, (…) the bright, thin walls of faith.

While it might seem like a switch to take so many lines at a time for the analysis, the structural setup of the poem leaves little organized option. All of this information is presented in one sentence, and that concept does more than complicating the analysis steps. It also hints that whatever the topic of this sentence is, it is exciting enough to Dharker to be presented in a rushed format, as she can hardly get the words out quickly enough. Whatever is presented in this series of lines then is the culmination of ‘ Living Space’ .

That culmination seems to be with people in the home. The wording, such as the “fragile curves of white,” provides evidence that the specific people being discussed are children due to the common mentality that children should be taken care of. Just as an “egg” needs to be treated kindly and delicately, children also can require thought and care. If the reader becomes convinced of that age of the considered residents, picturing the scene becomes a sadder concept. Children are in a broken-down home—somewhere they were “squeezed” into—where they huddle together like “eggs in a wire basket” as they try to find “light . ” All around them, it is “dark” and “slanted ,” but they try desperately to see past it by “gathering light unto themselves.”

Beyond the children’s reaction though, the final lines of the poem make their search for goodness seem as though it concerns more than their own dreams and happiness. The final words of the poem are “as if they were the bright, thin walls of faith.” The article choice of “the” in that statement is vastly important since it shows that this is a specific title given to specific people. They are not being described as just any of the “walls,” but rather “the…walls.” Out of all of the people in the home or neighborhood, these have somehow earned that title, and if they alone are the keepers of this name, they alone are the ones who can carry this “faith.”

Even the adjectives listed before the noun, “walls,” matter because they almost disagree with one another. These children are “bright,” which is positive. In the darkness, they can shine. But they are also “thin,” and that idea can be taken to mean that they are fragile, that they could break. The entire situation is unstable, like the house, but the possibilities for a better future will always exist in the midst of that darkness, so long as the “bright, thin walls of faith” still shine and look for better things.

This overall message could be taken as a statement toward poverty in general as well. People in these states could be in hardships, but possibilities can still prevail against the dimness. With that in mind, Dharker has created a poem that uses such simplicity of wording and circumstance to offer commentary on something much larger than one broken-down home. ‘Living Space’ is about bigger ideas, like life and hope.

About Imtiaz Dharker

Imtiaz Dharker is a poet who was born in Pakistan, but has lived in Scotland, England, and India. In addition, she has been awarded the Queen’s Gold Medal for Poetry. Beyond her work as a poet, which has been impressive, she has also gained public attention for her drawings and her film writing. Artistically, her resume then is varied and noteworthy.

Home » Imtiaz Dharker » Living Space

About Connie Smith

Join the poetry chatter and comment.

Exclusive to Poetry + Members

Join Conversations

Share your thoughts and be part of engaging discussions.

Expert Replies

Get personalized insights from our Qualified Poetry Experts.

Connect with Poetry Lovers

Build connections with like-minded individuals.

Thank you for pre-digesting as much literature as possible on the internet, saving countless lazy students the opportunity to think for themselves and to grapple with art in a meaningful fashion. I hope it was worth the paltry paycheck.

I have been one of those “lazy students” and actually having someone show me how to break down a poem has helped me better able to use this skill independently. (Modelling) To the point where I love poetry and now teach English myself. If you doubt the level of my malaise I received a D in English at GCSE level. Of course, independent thinking is valuable but being able to analyse a poem is a tough ask for a lot of “lazy students” and we only have them for a short time. The paycheck here might be paltry we do a good thing – we do appreciate constructive criticism, but rudeness? Not so much. I hope you find some joy in your day.

I’m very sorry but most of the analysis on this website is factually incorrect. ” ‘curves of white’ represent the children” I’M SORRY BUT NO THEY DO NOT. To start with the ‘curves of white’ is describing the egg not a child also they are INDIAN children therefore are not going to be white. I hope you enjoy misleading more GCSE students so they fail their English exams. Have a nice day!

Hi there Jenni. Thank you for your feedback. I have read through the analysis, and I think that the point the author of this article is trying to make is that the egg that is being described is emblematic of youth. Not really a particular stretch. Poems can often contain images that represent ideas. As always though we do welcome criticism, it’s just in this instance I happen to agree with the analysis

R/Murderedbywords

Sorry I don’t understand what you mean – you have given me a great idea for a poem though.

shutup jenni you dumb teacher your probably a lunch lady how are commenting on this

Mr Smith – I appreciate you defending us, but there is nothing wrong with being a dinner lady and I’d prefer it if you didn’t belittle a noble profession. 😉

Why are you so violent man? What did she do?

Access the Complete PDF Guide of this Poem

Poetry + PDF Guides are designed to be the ultimate PDF Guides for poetry. The PDF Guide consists of a front cover, table of contents, with the full analysis, including the Poetry+ Review Corner and numerically referenced literary terms, plus much more.

Get the PDF Guide

Experts in Poetry

Our work is created by a team of talented poetry experts, to provide an in-depth look into poetry, like no other.

Cite This Page

Smith, Connie. "Living Space by Imtiaz Dharker". Poem Analysis , https://poemanalysis.com/imtiaz-dharker/living-space/ . Accessed 20 September 2024.

Help Center

Request an Analysis

(not a member? Join now)

Poem PDF Guides

PDF Learning Library

Beyond the Verse Podcast

Poetry Archives

Poetry Explained

Poet Biographies

Useful Links

Poem Explorer

Poem Generator

[email protected]

Poem Solutions Limited, International House, 36-38 Cornhill, London, EC3V 3NG, United Kingdom

Download Poetry PDF Guides

Complete Poetry PDF Guide

Perfect Offline Resource

Covers Everything You Need to Know

One-pager 'snapshot' PDF

Offline Resource

Gateway to deeper understanding

Get this Poem Analysis as an Offline Resource

Poetry+ PDF Guides are designed to be the ultimate PDF Guides for poetry. The PDF Guide contains everything to understand poetry.

(and discover the hidden secrets to understanding poetry)

Get PDFs to Help You Learn Poetry

250+ Reviews

Yuri Gagarin: Facts about the first human in space

Yuri Gagarin was the first human in space when he orbited Earth in 1961 aboard the Vostok 1 space capsule.

Yuri Gagarin FAQs

Childhood and cosmonaut selection, vostok 1 mission, soyuz 1 and death, additional resources.

Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin was a Soviet pilot and cosmonaut who became the first human in space. In 1961, he orbited Earth aboard the Vostok 1 space capsule, the first-ever crewed spacecraft. As a result, he became an international celebrity and received many awards for this achievement, both within and outside the Soviet Union.

Vostok 1 was Gagarin's only spaceflight. He was on the backup crew for the Soyuz 1 mission but wasn’t allowed to go to space after that mission ended in a fatal crash because officials worried that Gagarin, a national hero, would be killed. Though he was eventually allowed to continue flying regular aircraft, he died five weeks after being cleared to fly again, when his flight-training airplane crashed. The exact cause of the crash is still unknown.

Related: Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1: How the 1st human spaceflight worked (infographic)

Who was the first man in space?

Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet pilot and cosmonaut, was the first person in space and the first to orbit Earth. 

How old was Yuri Gagarin when he died?

Yuri Gagarin was 34 when he died. 

How many times did Yuri Gagarin go to space?

Gagarin went to space only once, aboard the Vostok 1 capsule. He was also the backup crewmember for the Soyuz 1 mission. 

Gagarin was born on March 9, 1934, in the Soviet Russian village of Klushino to parents who worked on a collective farm, according to the European Space Agency (ESA). Beginning in October 1941, German soldiers occupied Klushino as part of their advance on Moscow during World War II. The occupation lasted 21 months, according to the BBC . In 1946, his family moved to the nearby town of Gzhatsk (now named Gagarin), where he went to secondary school and studied math and physics, according to the New Mexico Museum of Space History .

After six years of secondary school, Gagarin went to technical school in Saratov, where he also joined a local flying club and began learning to fly a plane. He went on to attend the Soviet Air Force Academy and graduated in 1957. He was one of 20 Soviet fighter pilots chosen as cosmonauts, in part because of his small size, according to ESA. To fit in the small Vostok capsule, cosmonauts couldn't be taller than 1.75 meters (5 feet 9 inches), according to Star Walk , and Gagarin was 1.57 m tall (5 feet 5 inches), according to ESA. In fact, in a 1961 interview , Gagarin described the capsule as quite roomy, especially compared with airplane cockpits of the time.  

Alongside other cosmonauts, Gagarin participated in intensive preparation for spaceflight, including various physical and psychological experiments. A doctor doing psychological testing on him praised his "high degree of intellectual development," noting his attention to detail, strong imagination, quick reaction time and skill in doing mathematical calculations, according to ESA.

" Vostok " means "East" in Russian, as opposed to the Western world, signifying the mission's importance in the Cold War-era space race between the United States and the Soviet Union. The crewed part of the capsule was spherical, with an inside diameter of about 7 feet (2 m), according to The Planetary Society . The spacecraft launched on April 12, 1961, from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in what is now Kazakhstan.

In response to a statement from ground control that everything seemed to be working fine, Gagarin famously replied "Poyekhali!" — an informal phrase meaning "Off we go!" in Russian, according to ESA.

Gagarin orbited Earth in the capsule for about an hour before the spacecraft reentered Earth's atmosphere . For the most part, the flight went smoothly, though Gagarin lost communication with ground control several times. The two parts of the spacecraft also failed to correctly separate for a while during reentry, and the spacecraft shook violently. But when the capsule was about 4 miles (6 kilometers) above the ground, Gagarin parachuted back to Earth as planned, landing on farmland outside the city of Engels, Russia.

After the mission, Gagarin became an overnight international celebrity; the Soviet Union had kept his spaceflight secret until it was successful. Gagarin was known not only for his accomplishments but also for his charismatic personality and smile, according to the BBC. Though he was barred from visiting the United States, he traveled the world and received many honors, The Telegraph reported . This included the title " Hero of the Soviet Union ," the nation's highest honor.

On April 23, 1967, the Soyuz 1 mission launched with cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov as its sole crewmember, with Gagarin as the backup. During the spacecraft's landing, the parachute failed to deploy, instantly killing Komarov when it hit the ground. Though Gagarin had nothing to do with the crash (and even reportedly tried to get the launch postponed due to safety concerns), the Soviet Union barred him from spaceflight after the crash, out of fear that their national hero would be killed, according to the BBC . Officials also originally also banned him from flying regular aircraft.

After completing additional training, Gagarin was eventually allowed to continue flying. But on March 27, 1968, the plane he was test-piloting crashed, killing him and flying instructor Vladimir Seryogin, according to ESA.

It is unclear exactly what caused the crash. An investigation by the KGB , the former Soviet security and intelligence agency, found that the aircraft went into a spin, possibly maneuvering sharply to avoid a weather balloon. According to the report, the two pilots couldn't regain control; they believed they were at a higher altitude than they actually were because of the inaccurate weather information they'd been given. The report is difficult to confirm, and there are many theories about the crash, including conspiracy theories that Gagarin's death was orchestrated by Soviet officials.

You can learn more about the first man in space with these pieces from Scientific American and Astronomy.com . Space Center Houston's on this day in history details Gagarin's historic flight to space. 

Bibliography

 BBC News. (2011, April 8). Yuri Gagarin: 'I was never nervous during the space flight.' [video]. https://www.bbc.com/news/av/uk-politics-12983333

Dowling, S. (2021, April 12). Yuri Gagarin: the spaceman who came in from the cold . BBC Future. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210409-yuri-gagarin-the-spaceman-who-came-in-from-the-cold  

European Space Agency. (2007, February 4). Yuri Gagarin . www.esa.int/About_Us/ESA_history/50_years_of_humans_in_space/Yuri_Gagarin

European Space Agency. (2007, February 4). The flight of Vostok 1. https://www.esa.int/About_Us/ESA_history/50_years_of_humans_in_space/The_flight_of_Vostok_1

Lapenkova, M. (2018, March 27). Fifty years on, Yuri Gagarin's death still shrouded in mystery . Phys.org. http://www.phys.org/news/2018-03-fifty-years-yuri-gagarin-death.html

McKeever, A. (2022, April 12). How the space race launched an era of exploration beyond Earth . National Geographic . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/space-race-early-human-spaceflight-history-missions?loggedin=true&rnd=1699322304385 .

Orange, R. (2011, April 12). Yuri Gagarin: 50th anniversary of the first man in space . The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/8443777/Yuri-Gagarin-50th-anniversary-of-the-first-man-in-space.html  

Star Walk. (2021, April 11). 60th anniversary of the first human space flight . https://starwalk.space/en/news/60th-anniversary-of-the-first-human-space-flight

Swopes, Brian. “Pilot-Cosmonaut Yuri Alexseyevich Gagarin, Hero of the Soviet Union.” This Day in Aviation. 14 Apr. 2023, https://www.thisdayinaviation.com/tag/yuri-alekseyevich-gagarin/ . Accessed November 7, Nov. 2023.

The Planetary Society. (n.d.). Yuri Gagarin and Vostok 1, the first human spaceflight . Retrieved November 7, 2023, from https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/vostok-1

Join our Space Forums to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at: [email protected].

Get the Space.com Newsletter

Breaking space news, the latest updates on rocket launches, skywatching events and more!

Rebecca Sohn is a freelance science writer. She writes about a variety of science, health and environmental topics, and is particularly interested in how science impacts people's lives. She has been an intern at CalMatters and STAT, as well as a science fellow at Mashable. Rebecca, a native of the Boston area, studied English literature and minored in music at Skidmore College in Upstate New York and later studied science journalism at New York University. 

FAA plans to fine SpaceX $630,000 for alleged launch violations

NASA astronaut photographs SpaceX's private Polaris Dawn capsule reentry from ISS (photo)

SpaceX launches 2 European navigation satellites, lands rocket (video)

Most Popular

• 2 A 'primordial' black hole may zoom through our solar system every decade
• 3 FAA plans to fine SpaceX $630,000 for alleged launch violations
• 4 Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS nears the sun this month. Will it be visible to the naked eye?
• 5 9 firsts in 5 days: Polaris Dawn crew lands from history-making SpaceX mission

• Ask LitCharts AI
• Discussion Question Generator
• Essay Prompt Generator
• Quiz Question Generator

• Literature Guides
• Poetry Guides
• Shakespeare Translations
• Literary Terms

Living Space Summary & Analysis by Imtiaz Dharker

• Line-by-Line Explanation & Analysis
• Poetic Devices
• Vocabulary & References
• Form, Meter, & Rhyme Scheme
• Line-by-Line Explanations

"Living Space" was written by Pakistan-born British poet Imtiaz Dharker. As the title might suggest, the poem describes someone's living space—that is, their home. Dharker has said that the poem describes a typical dwelling in the slums of the Indian city of Mumbai, but this isn't stated explicitly in the text itself. On the one hand, the poem highlights the precariousness of such homes. More significantly, however, it praises them as an expression of the miraculousness of life, seeing this living space as evidence of human resourcefulness and determination.

• Read the full text of “Living Space”

The Full Text of “Living Space”

“living space” summary, “living space” themes.

Human Resourcefulness and Fragility

Line-by-line explanation & analysis of “living space”.

There are just ... ... or parallel.

Beams ... ... at open seams.

The whole structure ... ... towards the miraculous.

Lines 11-16

Into this rough ... ... curves of white

Lines 17-22

hung out over ... ... walls of faith.

“Living Space” Symbols

• Lines 14-22: “and even dared to place / these eggs in a wire basket, / fragile curves of white / hung out over the dark edge / of a slanted universe, / gathering the light / into themselves, / as if they were / the bright, thin walls of faith.”

“Living Space” Poetic Devices & Figurative Language

Alliteration.

• Line 1: “Th”
• Line 2: “Th”
• Line 3: “th”
• Line 5: “B”
• Line 6: “b,” “c”
• Line 8: “c”
• Line 12: “s,” “s”
• Line 13: “s”
• Line 17: “th”
• Line 19: “th”
• Line 20: “th”
• Line 21: “th”
• Line 22: “th”
• Line 1: “u,” “ou”
• Line 2: “a”
• Line 4: “a”
• Line 5: “a,” “a,” “ea”
• Line 6: “y,” “u”
• Line 7: “u”
• Line 8: “u,” “ea”
• Line 9: “u,” “ea,” “ou,” “y”
• Line 10: “ou”
• Line 11: “ou,” “a”
• Line 12: “o,” “o”
• Line 13: “a”
• Line 14: “a”
• Line 16: “i”
• Line 19: “i”
• Line 22: “i”
• Line 2: “lines. That”
• Line 5: “parallel. Beams”
• Line 22: “bright, thin”
• Line 1: “Th,” “st”
• Line 2: “st,” “t,” “s,” “Th,” “t”
• Line 3: “s,” “th”
• Line 4: “th,” “s,” “t”
• Line 5: “ll,” “l,” “B,” “s”
• Line 6: “b,” “c,” “c,” “k,” “s,” “ts”
• Line 7: “th,” “st,” “th,” “t,” “c”
• Line 8: “l,” “s,” “cl,” “t,” “s,” “s”
• Line 9: “l,” “st,” “l,” “s,” “sl”
• Line 10: “t,” “s,” “l,” “s”
• Line 11: “gh,” “f”
• Line 12: “s,” “s,” “s,” “z”
• Line 13: “s,” “c”
• Line 14: “d,” “d,” “c”
• Line 15: “s,” “s,” “s”
• Line 16: “c”
• Line 17: “th,” “k”
• Line 18: “s,” “n,” “n,” “s”
• Line 19: “th,” “th”
• Line 22: “th,” “th,” “th”
• Line 1: “enough”
• Line 2: “straight,” “That”
• Line 3: “is”
• Line 4: “flat”
• Line 5: “or,” “Beams”
• Line 6: “balance,” “supports”
• Line 7: “thrust”
• Line 9: “dangerously”
• Line 10: “towards”
• Line 12: “squeezed”
• Line 14: “place”
• Line 15: “these”
• Line 16: “white”
• Line 17: “hung,” “edge”
• Line 18: “of”
• Line 19: “light”
• Line 20: “into”
• Line 21: “were”
• Line 22: “the”
• Lines 21-22: “as if they were / the bright, thin walls of faith.”

“Living Space” Vocabulary

Select any word below to get its definition in the context of the poem. The words are listed in the order in which they appear in the poem.

• (Location in poem: Line 5: “Beams”)

Form, Meter, & Rhyme Scheme of “Living Space”

Rhyme scheme, “living space” speaker, “living space” setting, literary and historical context of “living space”, more “living space” resources, external resources.

Dharker's Website — The poet's own website, with details of Dharker's other poems and films. 

Mumbai Poems — Contemporary Indian poets select some of their favorite Mumbai poetry.  

More Poems by Dharker — A valuable resource from the Poetry Archive. 

A Reading — The poem read by the poet herself.  

An Interview with Dharker — An informal chat with the poet.  

LitCharts on Other Poems by Imtiaz Dharker

A century later

Ask LitCharts AI: The answer to your questions

• Quizzes, saving guides, requests, plus so much more.

Is Vertical Living the Future of Architecture?

Architecture is a profession that is deeply affected by every aspect of a human’s life. As the population increases exponentially and global warming raises the sea levels, vertical living poses a solution for the eventual scarcity of land and holds the future of habitation on our planet. 

“Architecture is a reflection of the society we live in.” – Sir Norman Foster

Innovation in technology and material, and savvy utilization of space , allow for the possibility of accommodating every part and parcel of life on earth in a vertical city. A step towards that has already begun in the architectural community with the increasing popularity of vertical farming, and urban high-rise offices and dwellings. Seoul in South Korea, and Moscow in Russia, are among many of the currently rising vertical cities in the world. (Keegan, 2019) 

This would lead to a necessary collaboration with system leaders from fields such as environmental science, and social anthropology, which would change the dynamics of the field of architecture. (LTD, 2017)

Growth of Population | Vertical Live

Every day, approximately 200,000 people move to a big city. By the year 2050, almost 7 billion people which is about 70% of the world’s population will live in an urban city. The transition from a rural to an urban dwelling will call for the dire need for housing and infrastructure to cater to the growing population. This necessity is a boon as well as a curse for architects. 

While the demand for design and buildings will increase, the scarcity of resources and the planet’s slow descent into demise with climate change and global warming, make it difficult to provide for the need. The obvious solution to the glaring land scarcity issue is vertical living.  

Technological advancements

The construction industry is innovating constantly to provide sustainable building solutions to meet the multifarious ecological and economic requirements that conserve resources and increase durability and productivity. 

One of the materials being tested is carbon concrete; it has a load-bearing capacity that is 5/6 times higher than conventional RCC, is four times lighter, more durable, and does not rust. This new composite has the potential to transform the construction industry . The first carbon house was built in 2019 on the campus of Dresden Technical University . (ZAPFL, 2019)

A group of scientists from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is developing an innovative building material that is lighter than plastic and constitutes a layer of honeycomb carbon atoms. It is claimed to be ten times stronger than steel.

The Poly Corporation Headquarters in Beijing uses a load-bearing precast concrete frame that eradicates the need for internal columns and hence, creates more floor area as compared to other systems of construction. It poses as an alternative to glass curtain walls that are conventionally used for high-rise building construction. Furthermore, the building features ‘The Rocker’: which is a unique construction element that supports the world’s largest cable-net glass wall while accommodating aspects like wind resistance and earthquake wave absorption.  (5 innovations in high-rise building design, 2013)

While new materials and construction techniques are being invented, C.F. Møller Architects in Sweden implemented a traditional material like timber to design a multi-story apartment building. The major advantage of using wood is that the production chain emits a limited amount of carbon dioxide and is part of a closed cycle, where the carbon is retained in the frame of the building . (Kajstaden Tall Timber Building / C.F. Møller Architects, 2020)  

Impact on Environment | Vertical Live

Amidst the rising concern for global climate change, The World Green Building Council promoted the possibility to have all new buildings be net-zero carbon by 2030, and all buildings by 2050. High-rise buildings have a lower footprint which leads to a lesser impact on the ground and soil directly, however, this also implies that they do not have a large surface area on the roof to provide for sufficient solar panels. 

Furthermore, they are also subjected to stronger winds, and harsher and longer rays of sunlight. Hence, additional energy is required to counter these climatic conditions.

A team from the Netherlands calculated and reported that with a 6-meter high wind turbine with solar panels on the roof of the building it is possible to attain net-zero energy for a building of up to 11 stories. (Experiment: How can net-zero energy be enabled for high-rise buildings?, 2018)

In 2019, Canada funded an apartment building that would be the first net-zero energy high-rise. The building would be a model to establish the feasibility of net-zero and inspire the construction industry worldwide. It is a step towards using renewable and clean energy technologies to help attain the desired climate change goals of the future. 

Privatization of Public Spaces

With the rise of vertical, low footprint buildings to accommodate the growing population, the degree of isolation of humans increases. Furthermore, the concept of an apartment society with public functions like parks, grocery stores, gyms inclusive, are being increasingly popular in today’s day and age. While it arose from a safety point of view, it is making society more introverted and disconnected. 

With the increasing density of the city fabric and digitization of information, the physical proximity and co-present interaction remains the main form of human interaction. Thus public spaces are a staged spectacle and the need to see and to be seen is what draws people out of their homes into public spaces.

Revolutionary urban theorists like Jane Jacobs, Doreen Massey, and Lewis Mumford, have all advocated that the life of a city lies in the public rather than the private sphere. However, an increasing number of public spaces like open-air theatres, parks, and gardens are being privatized. 

While privatization is beneficial in terms of maintenance and regulation, it strips the population of the ability to gather and socialize by restraining its access to a certain part of society. Furthermore, the lower economic class of society that cannot afford the luxuries of the private societies and facilities, are deprived of any recreational facilities.

The public platform, therefore, is not just important because of its role as a relief from the claustrophobic growing density and isolation, but it is also a place where citizens across all economic groups can gather. The role of the architect extends to tending to a social cause in society to provide for the improved public open spaces in a world of verticality.

Redefining Open Spaces | Vertical Live

High-rise buildings prompt one to question how ground cover, and open, green space are accommodated since it plays an important role in the mental and physical health of a human being and by extension the city in itself. 

An example of an attempt is Bosco Verticale in Milan, Italy . It is a building that is the first example of a cohabitation tower between humans and plants in a high-density urban ecosystem. The vertical forest was aimed to increase biodiversity and repopulate the flora and fauna of the region. 

However, the attempt resulted in the greenery being superficial ornaments rather than the expected lushness. Furthermore, trees play an important role as social activators, and the use of them in this example, restricts them to be shared and enjoyed only by a few.

The High Line in New York City, is a 1.5-mile-long public park built on an abandoned elevated railroad. Through the use of “agri-tecture”-part agriculture, part architecture- the High Line created modules of various gradients of paving and greenery to effectively simulate the environment of a public park, but above ground. The park tends to a wide range of environments from wild, urbane, intimate, and social.

Although vertical living might be the future of architecture, it comes with a set of disadvantages and creates a situation in which the buildings to be left in isolation. This would make urban design, planning, and the context in which these verticals reside, extremely important. 

Architects would then bear, more than ever, the weight of social responsibility, to create healthy flourishing cities for the people. It makes architecture beyond the scope of aesthetics and experiential qualities and becomes a call for mental health, well-being, and the future of the planet. 

Nweurope.eu. 2018. Experiment: How can net zero energy be enabled for high-rise buildings? . [online] Available at: <https://www.nweurope.eu/projects/project-search/e-0-desirable-warm-affordable-homes-for-life/news/experiment-how-can-net-zero-energy-be-enabled-for-high-rise-buildings/> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

ArchDaily. 2020. Kajstaden Tall Timber Building / C.F. Møller Architects . [online] Available at: <https://www.archdaily.com/933091/kajstaden-tall-timber-building-cf-moller-architects> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

Keegan, M., 2019. Which is the world’s most vertical city? . [online] the Guardian. Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/jul/16/which-is-the-worlds-most-vertical-city> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

Medium. 2017. Emerging Trends That Will Shape the Future of Architecture . [online] Available at: <https://medium.com/studiotmd/emerging-trends-that-will-shape-the-future-of-architecture-356ba3e7f910> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

Mbauniverse.com. 2021. Privatization of Public Sector in India: A right step or selling family silver? . [online] Available at: <https://www.mbauniverse.com/group-discussion/topic/business-economy/privatization-of-indian-economy#:~:text=Privatization%20is%20beneficial%20for%20the,of%20the%20state%2Downed%20enterprises.&text=Privatisation%20always%20helps%20in%20keeping,efficiency%2> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

Building Design + Construction. 2013. 5 innovations in high-rise building design . [online] Available at: <https://www.bdcnetwork.com/5-innovations-high-rise-building-design> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

ZAPFL, D., 2019. 5 innovative building materials of the future . [online] Lead-innovation.com. Available at: <https://www.lead-innovation.com/english-blog/5-innovative-building-materials-of-the-future> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

Image Citations | Vertical Live

Image 1&2: Growth of population (2018-2050):  Damassets.autodesk.net. 2021. BUILDING THE FUTURE . [online] Available at: <https://damassets.autodesk.net/content/dam/autodesk/www/solutions/architecture-engineering-construction/docs/20190322_Autodesk_Whitepaper.pdf> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

Image 3: Dresden Technical University Campus: Aboutcivil.org. 2021. World’s First Carbon-Fiber Reinforced Concrete Building – CUBE . [online] Available at: <https://www.aboutcivil.org/carbon-reinforced-concrete-building-cube#:%7E:text=A%20two%2Dstory%20building%20locally,entirely%20on%20Carbon%20Reinforced%20Concrete.> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

Image 4: Precast concrete frame used on the elevation of the Poly Corporation Headquarters: Skyscrapercenter.com. 2021. Poly Corporation Headquarters – The Skyscraper Center . [online] Available at: <https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/building/poly-corporation-headquarters/15093> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

Image 5: The Rocker designed to support the glass wall:  Building Design + Construction. 2021. 5 innovations in high-rise building design . [online] Available at: <https://www.bdcnetwork.com/5-innovations-high-rise-building-design> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

Image 6: Kajstaden Tall Timber building elevation: ArchDaily. 2021. Kajstaden Tall Timber Building / C.F. Møller Architects . [online] Available at: <https://www.archdaily.com/933091/kajstaden-tall-timber-building-cf-moller-architects> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

Image 7:  Proposed net-zero high-rise in Ontario: Lamelza, J., 2021. First Residential High-Rise Net-Zero Energy Building . [online] Blog.databid.com. Available at: <https://blog.databid.com/blog/first-residential-high-rise-net-zero-energy-building> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

Image 8: Rendering vs. Reality of Bosco Verticale’s “green curtain”: Kohlstedt, K., 2021. Renderings vs. Reality: The Improbable Rise of Tree-Covered Skyscrapers – 99% Invisible . [online] 99% Invisible. Available at: <https://99percentinvisible.org/article/renderings-vs-reality-rise-tree-covered-skyscrapers/> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

Image 9: The High Line, New York: DS+R. 2021. The High Line . [online] Available at: <https://dsrny.com/project/the-high-line> [Accessed 4 March 2021].

A fourth year architecture student from CEPT University, Nechal uses the literary world as a medium, to delve into every nook and cranny of architecture.

9 Pros and Cons of Container Architecture

Valuing the Past, Building the Future

Related posts.

Exploring the Impact of a Missing Pillar of Civilization

Envisioning the Future of Architecture: Sustainable Innovation and Enduring Design

Future Cities

The Line: An Epitome of The Future of Architecture

Architectural Narratives: Designing the Past, Present, and Future

From Nomads to Megacities

• Architectural Community
• Architectural Facts
• RTF Architectural Reviews
• Architectural styles
• City and Architecture
• Fun & Architecture
• History of Architecture
• Design Studio Portfolios
• Designing for typologies
• RTF Design Inspiration
• Architecture News
• Career Advice
• Case Studies
• Construction & Materials
• Covid and Architecture
• Interior Design
• Know Your Architects
• Landscape Architecture
• Materials & Construction
• Product Design
• RTF Fresh Perspectives
• Sustainable Architecture
• Top Architects
• Travel and Architecture
• Rethinking The Future Awards 2022
• RTF Awards 2021 | Results
• GADA 2021 | Results
• RTF Awards 2020 | Results
• ACD Awards 2020 | Results
• GADA 2019 | Results
• ACD Awards 2018 | Results
• GADA 2018 | Results
• RTF Awards 2017 | Results
• RTF Sustainability Awards 2017 | Results
• RTF Sustainability Awards 2016 | Results
• RTF Sustainability Awards 2015 | Results
• RTF Awards 2014 | Results
• RTF Architectural Visualization Competition 2020 – Results
• Architectural Photography Competition 2020 – Results
• Designer’s Days of Quarantine Contest – Results
• Urban Sketching Competition May 2020 – Results
• RTF Essay Writing Competition April 2020 – Results
• Architectural Photography Competition 2019 – Finalists
• The Ultimate Thesis Guide
• Introduction to Landscape Architecture
• Perfect Guide to Architecting Your Career
• How to Design Architecture Portfolio
• How to Design Streets
• Introduction to Urban Design
• Introduction to Product Design
• Complete Guide to Dissertation Writing
• Introduction to Skyscraper Design
• Educational
• Hospitality
• Institutional
• Office Buildings
• Public Building
• Residential
• Sports & Recreation
• Temporary Structure
• Commercial Interior Design
• Corporate Interior Design
• Healthcare Interior Design
• Hospitality Interior Design
• Residential Interior Design
• Sustainability
• Transportation
• Urban Design
• Host your Course with RTF
• Architectural Writing Training Programme | WFH
• Editorial Internship | In-office
• Graphic Design Internship
• Research Internship | WFH
• Research Internship | New Delhi
• RTF | About RTF
• Submit Your Story

• International
• Education Jobs
• Schools directory
• Resources Education Jobs Schools directory News Search

Grade 9 London vs Living Space Essay

Subject: English

Age range: 14-16

Resource type: Assessment and revision

Last updated

9 February 2020

• Share through email
• Share through twitter
• Share through linkedin
• Share through facebook
• Share through pinterest

Full essay that shows the sense of place in both London by William Blake and Living Space by Imtiaz Dharker. The grade 9 essay will help you achieve excellent grades and give you a helping hand. It contains fully fleshed out in depth language analysis.

Tes paid licence How can I reuse this?

Get this resource as part of a bundle and save up to 44%

A bundle is a package of resources grouped together to teach a particular topic, or a series of lessons, in one place.

WJEC/EDUQAS Revision Tools

Includes: * Dulce Decorum Est Quote Analysis * Grade 9 London vs Living Space Essay * Grade 9 Prelude vs Death of a Naturalist Essay * Grade 9 Hawk Roosting vs Ozymandias Essay * WJEC/EDUQAS Poetry Anthology * Wjec/EDUQAS Poetry Contexts * Sonnet 43 Revision Poster * The Manhunt Revision Poster

Your rating is required to reflect your happiness.

It's good to leave some feedback.

Something went wrong, please try again later.

s_montague1

Not a grade 9 response

HarshikaBhojani02

Hello, I’m sorry you feel this way. This essay was written 4 years ago and at the this was considered a high standard

Empty reply does not make any sense for the end user

Report this resource to let us know if it violates our terms and conditions. Our customer service team will review your report and will be in touch.

Not quite what you were looking for? Search by keyword to find the right resource:

Alternatively, search more than 1 million objects from IWM collections

Operation Barbarossa And Germany's Failure In The Soviet Union

Nazi germany and the soviet union.

In August 1939, as Europe  slid towards another world war , Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression treaty. The Nazi-Soviet Pact came as a complete surprise to other nations, given the ideological differences between the two countries. It ushered in a period of military co-operation which allowed Hitler to ignore western diplomatic moves and invade Poland. Stalin's forces then attacked from the west and completed the subjugation and partition of the Polish state. For the next year and a half Germany also benefitted economically from the arrangement, with Russia exporting grain and oil in return for manufactured goods.

Soviet cooperation allowed Hitler to expand his plans for European domination. In May 1940 the Blitzkrieg rolled westwards and France was conquered in six weeks. But peace with Russia would not last. Hitler had always wanted to see Germany expand eastwards to gain  Lebensraum  or 'living space' for its people.

After the fall of France Hitler ordered plans to be drawn up for an invasion of the Soviet Union. He intended to destroy what he saw as Stalin's 'Jewish Bolshevist' regime and establish Nazi hegemony. The conquest and enslavement of the Soviet Union's racially 'inferior' Slavic populations would be part of a grand plan of 'Germanisation' and economic exploitation lasting well beyond the expected military victory. Regardless of recent economic and political co-operation, the Soviet Union was regarded as the natural enemy of Nazi Germany and a key strategic objective.

Operation 'Barbarossa'

On 18 December 1940 Hitler issued Führer Directive 21, an order for the invasion of the Soviet Union. The German military plan called for an advance up to a hypothetical line running from the port of Archangel in northern Russia to the port of Astrakhan on the Caspian Sea – the so-called 'A-A line'. This would bring the bulk of the Soviet population and its economic potential under German control.

After a five week delay while operations in Greece and Yugoslavia were completed, Operation 'Barbarossa' - named after the all-conquering Medieval Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I - was launched on 22 June 1941. Over three and a half million German and other Axis troops attacked along a 1,800-mile front. A total of 148 divisions - 80 per cent of the German Army - were committed to the enterprise. Seventeen panzer divisions, formed into four Panzer Groups, formed the vanguard with 3,400 tanks. They were supported by 2,700 aircraft of the Luftwaffe. It was the largest invasion force to date.

The German forces were split into three army groups, each with a specific objective. Army Group North was to head through the Baltic States of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia and take Leningrad. Army Group South would attack into the Ukraine towards Kiev and the Donbas (Donets Basin) industrial region. Between them, Army Group Centre's objective was Minsk, Smolensk and then Moscow itself. Hitler expected these all to be attained in approximately ten weeks.

The Soviets had massed large forces on their western frontier, but they were under orders not to provoke the Germans. Although mistrustful of Hitler, Stalin did not believe that he would attack so soon, despite the ominous German build-up and a stream of intelligence warnings. He had some 5 million men available immediately and a total of 23,000 tanks, but the Red Army was still unprepared when the Germans struck.

The Germans got off to a good start, with the panzer groups quickly pushing towards their objectives and Russian forces falling apart in confusion. They were greatly helped by the Luftwaffe's bombing of Soviet airfields, artillery positions and troop concentrations. The Germans quickly established air superiority. On the first day alone 1,800 Soviet aircraft were destroyed, most of them on the ground. Army Group North, under Field Marshal Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb, plunged towards Leningrad, with General Erich Hoepner's Panzer Group 4 in the lead. Russian forces in this sector were thinly spread and the panzers covered 500 miles (804 km) in three weeks. By mid-July they were only 60 miles (96 km) from their objective.

Army Group Centre, under Field Marshal Fedor von Bock, also made rapid progress. By 28 June Panzer Group 2, led by General Heinz Guderian, and General Hermann Hoth's Panzer Group 3 had encircled three Russian armies and captured over 320,000 men in the Bialystok-Minsk pockets. The two panzer groups then pressed ahead, linking up on the far side of Smolensk on 27 July in another double envelopment. Two more Russian armies were trapped and destroyed, and  another 300,000 troops taken prisoner .

Army Group South, under  Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt , had the furthest to go and his attack also faced the stiffest Soviet resistance. Most of the Russian armour was on this front. But by early July von Rundstedt had pushed out beyond the pre-1939 Polish frontier. General Ewald von Kleist's Panzer Group 1 was slowed by Soviet flanking attacks as it headed for Kiev, the capital of Ukraine and key to the coal-rich Donets Basin. On 8 August the Germans surrounded two Soviet armies, capturing 100,000 men in the Uman pocket, and reached the Dnieper River. The naval port of Odessa on the Black Sea was also besieged.

Up to this point all seemed to be going well, the only major problem being the time needed for the infantry to catch up with the panzers and mop up pockets of Russian defence. But Soviet resistance was now stiffening, despite catastrophic losses. A German salient around Yelnya, south-east of Smolensk, was recaptured in a costly but successful counterattack.

Meanwhile, Army Group Centre's supply situation was becoming critical. Hitler decided to halt the advance on Moscow and reinforce Army Groups North and South. Hoth's Panzer Group 3 was sent north to support the drive on Leningrad while Guderian's tanks were despatched to help Army Group South take Kiev. The German High Command protested vigorously. The panzers were only 220 miles from Moscow. But Hitler regarded the resource-rich Ukraine as more important. On 21 August he ordered that the conquest of the Crimea and the Donets Basin be given priority.

The Soviets were completely fooled by German moves. Five Soviet armies were trapped in a vast salient around Kiev. As usual, Stalin refused to sanction a withdrawal before the pocket was sealed. By the end of September Kiev had fallen and over 650,000 Russian troops killed or captured. The Germans pushed along the Black Sea coast and into the Crimea, laying siege to Sevastapol. In October Kharkov fell, but by now the Germans were exhausted. The fighting had severely depleted their ranks and supply lines were stretched to the limit. For now, the southern front stayed where it was. In the north too, German forces had reached their limit. In September, with the aid of their Finnish Allies, they cut Leningrad off from the rest of Russia, but lacked the strength to take the city. Instead, Hitler ordered that it be starved into submission. The epic siege would last 890 days.

The battle for Moscow

Hitler now decided to resume the battle for Moscow. On 2 October he unleashed Operation 'Typhoon'. He believed the Russians had been fatally weakened and lacked the strength to defend their capital - one more push would see it fall and victory would be his. But the Red Army had been reinforced. Almost a million Soviet troops were in place, although they had few tanks and aircraft left. A multi-layered ring of defences had been thrown around the capital and its citizens had been mobilised. The German offensive was carried out by a reinforced Army Group Centre, comprising three infantry armies and three panzer groups - 1 million men and 1,700 tanks. However the Luftwaffe was weak after over three months of sustained operations. And the weather was beginning to turn.

Once again the initial assault was a success. The panzer divisions stormed ahead and over 600,000 Russian soldiers were captured in two more huge encirclements near the cities of Bryansk and Vyazma. The Russians were down to about 90,000 men. But as they reached the approaches to Moscow, the German formations slowed to a crawl. Autumn rains had turned the dirt roads into rivers of mud. It was the  Rasputitsa  - the 'quagmire season' - and wheeled and horse-drawn transport became hopelessly stuck. The Germans chose to temporarily halt operations.

In mid-November, with the temperature dropping and the ground now frozen hard, the panzers attempted a final pincer attack around Moscow itself. The delay had given the Soviets time to bring in further reinforcements, including reservists and troops from Siberia and the eastern borders. The northern German pincer was the most successful and got within 12 miles of the city. German officers could see the Kremlin buildings through their field glasses. The Germans also tried attacking in the centre, along the Minsk-Moscow road. On 2 December a reconnaissance unit got within 5 miles of Moscow. Though tantalisingly close, this was the limit of the entire advance. The depleted German units were exhausted and frozen into inactivity in the deep snow.

On 5 December the Soviets launched a surprise counter-offensive. The Germans were forced into a retreat, despite Hitler's call to defend every foot of ground. Guderian and several other senior generals who advised withdrawal were sacked. The Russians succeeded in crushing various German formations in encirclements of their own. The Luftwaffe struggled to operate but performed vital work ferrying supplies to cut off units and harrying the Russian advance. Army Group Centre was pushed back up to 150 miles from Moscow. A furious Hitler dismissed the commander-in-chief of the German Army,  Field Marshal Walther von Brauchitsch , and appointed himself in his place.

Watch the invasion unfold

I this episode of IWM Stories, John Delaney tells the story of the invasion that changed the course of the Second World War.

On the 22nd of June 1941, Adolf Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union. It was the beginning of a campaign that would ultimately decide the Second World War.

At first, the Germans enjoyed stunning success, the panzers forged ahead, while the Luftwaffe ruled the skies. Hundreds of thousands of Russian soldiers were killed or captured in huge encirclement battles. Germany seemed to be on the brink of another major victory.

But the Soviet Union did not crumble as expected and despite terrible losses, their will to fight remained strong. German casualties mounted as they came agonizingly close to taking Moscow. Just 20 miles short of their objective, the Soviets launched a sudden counter-attack forcing the Germans onto the defensive. It was Hitler's first defeat on land in the second world war.

But how did it happen? Why did Operation Barbarossa come so close to success before falling at the final hurdle? Well, before we answer that question, a reminder to subscribe to the Imperial War Museum's YouTube channel for more videos just like this every two weeks.

Adolf Hitler begins planning to invade the Soviet Union as early as July 1940 before the Battle of Britain actually takes place. Even back in 'Mein Kampf' in the mid-1920s, he's planning to attack the Soviet Union. This is going to be the battleground on which National Socialism's ideology either wins out or flounders.

One of the tenets of that ideology was the idea of 'lebensraum or 'living space'. The creation of a Germanic Aryan Empire in Eastern Europe that would grant the resources needed for self-sufficiency. Having defeated France and the Low Countries in just six weeks, Germany was confident of capturing that land from the Soviet Union. Hitler believed that communist society was fundamentally weak and that it wouldn't take much to defeat it.

His famous quote is that 'all we've got to do is kick the door in and the whole edifice will come crumbling down'. The Germans are not only planning on a fast Blitzkrieg campaign that's going to knock the Soviet Union out of the war in six to eight weeks, but they need a fast victory. They can't have a slow attritional war because there's not enough reserves of men and material to turn this into a long war we need to win quickly.

To achieve that victory Germany mustered over three million men, the largest invasion force in the history of warfare to that point. Three army groups set out for three different targets, Army Group North heading for Leningrad, Army Group Centre aiming for Moscow, and Army Group South heading for Kyiv.

The whole strategy is a resumption of the Blitzkrieg idea that's been so successful in France, that is you win by not fighting. If you want to find out more about Blitzkrieg and how it works I've put a link to our video on the subject in the description.

When the operation commenced on the 22nd of June 1941 those tactics worked perfectly, the advance exceeding all expectations. Hundreds of thousands of troops were captured as German tanks steamed through the Soviet defences.

The Germans begin the campaign by basically destroying the Soviet Air Force on the ground, they catch them by surprise the Soviet Air Force is basically destroyed. Which enables the German army to move freely across the battlefield, thrust deep into the Russian interior and encircle the frontier armies.

The Soviet army was taken completely by surprise and had not had time to fortify their new border in Poland. While Stalin's purges of the Soviet Officer Corps left his army poorly led.

Whereas in the Battle of France the French and British armies would see themselves just about to get cut off and would decide 'oh time to retreat'. She Soviet armies are so slow, so badly led, that they don't have time to pull back. They get encircled completely cut off, hundreds of thousands of men. However, there is a problem.

By the time they reached this point Germany expected to have destroyed the Russian field armies and that the remaining surge towards Moscow would be more of a parade than a battle. But the Germans had completely underestimated the size of the Soviet army.

They're going to invade with about 3 million men and they expect the total Soviet army to be roughly the same. Whereas in actual fact by Christmas 1941, German armies have captured three million Soviet soldiers and they're still fighting.

Those vast distances covered by the German panzers made them more and more difficult to supply, while Soviet soldiers unexpectedly continued to fight.

So actually these big encirclements behind the German lines became a real problem in that they could now attack into the German lines of communication and cut them off from the front line. So at this point, Hitler said 'well hang on stop'.

Despite protests from the German generals, Army Group Center stopped its attack on Moscow and peeled off to the left and right to help destroy the Soviet pockets that were still fighting, killing or capturing hundreds of thousands more Soviet soldiers in huge battles of annihilation. By mid-September, the Soviet field armies were finally finished and the drive on Moscow could begin.

This pause to look behind and clear up behind, to allow everybody to catch up. It gives a breather for the Soviets to redefine their own front line and bring up more units into the front line dig in before Moscow. So there's now a completely new defence line that the Germans have to break through when they recommence the offensive.

And that wasn't the only problem for Germany. Though these new troops were undersupplied and under-trained, new supplies were beginning to arrive from Britain.

Many of these divisions don't have uniforms they're just civilian clothes, some of the divisions they have to share rifles there's not enough rifles to go around. At the same time, the first arctic convoys are arriving in Murmansk and Archangel bringing supplies from Britain, just giving enough equipment for the soviets to sort of stay in the field.

On top of that, the Soviets had managed to relocate their factories from in front of the advancing Germans to the Ural Mountains. That meant war production was actually kicking up and they were able to get more tanks like the new T-34 into the front line. Worst of all though was the rapidly deteriorating Russian weather.

Through October is the Soviet autumn. So what happens is you have snowfalls, thaw, snowfall, thaw, you get a completely muddy morass across all of central Russia. So the German offensive begins to grind to a halt both because they're coming up against this new defensive line that they didn't really expect. Plus the Soviet weather's getting in the way, plus the fact that now most German formations especially the armoured formations at the tip of the spear are now down to about 50 strength. They get to 20 kilometers away from Moscow and by that stage, the weather is now turned completely it's now full-blown Soviet winter. By the end of November, you've got more German troops in hospital with frostbite than you have with wounds.

The offensive was over, but looking at the whole picture as Barbarossa came to a halt Germany still seemed to be in a good position. Army Group North was sure that the besieged Leningrad was about to fall. Army Group Centre were at the gates of Moscow and Army Group South had taken the Ukraine and Kiev. When the new year came they planned to finish the job, however little did they know the Soviets had an ace up their sleeve.

They've managed to transfer the majority of those Russian divisions which were on the eastern side of the Soviet Union, those that had been facing Mongolia and the Japanese because they'd learned that the Japanese were not going to attack. These weren't green untrained troops, these were proper Soviet field divisions and many of them had been trained for winter warfare because they're from Siberia.

Unlike the exhausted Germans they would be facing, these troops had winter camouflage and weapons that could survive the extreme cold. On December 6th they counter-attacked.

And they launched this big Soviet counter-offensive in front of the gates of Moscow and catch the Germans completely by surprise and force them onto the retreat and that's the end of Barbarossa.

Hitler's ideological assumption that Soviet society would collapse when they kicked the door in could not have been further from the truth. The Germans needed a quick victory, but the Soviets had managed to stay in the fight and turn the Blitzkrieg Barbarossa into a war of production.

The Germans are now being forced into a war of attrition. A long, grinding, slow war in the Soviet interior, in this case in wintertime, and things are looking bad for the Germans because they haven't got the men and material to face up to the soviet armies on a one-to-one basis.

Despite Barbarossa's failure to finish the Soviets quickly, a new German offensive began in 1942. Under Hitler's direct orders the target was the Caucasus in the south and a city called Stalingrad. The German generals wanted to resume the push on Moscow, but Hitler insisted that Germany needed the oil fields in Azerbaijan to supply their armies. Though it escaped his generals Hitler had now realized this was a war of attrition and material whether he liked it or not.

Why Operation 'Barbarossa' failed

Operation 'Barbarossa' had clearly failed. Despite the serious losses inflicted on the Red Army and extensive territorial gains, the mission to completely destroy Soviet fighting power and force a capitulation was not achieved.

One of the most important reasons for this was poor strategic planning. The Germans had no satisfactory long-term plan for the invasion. They mistakenly assumed that the campaign would be a short one, and that the Soviets would give in after suffering the shock of massive initial defeats. Hitler had assured the High Command that 'We have only to kick in the front door and the whole rotten edifice will come tumbling down'. But Russia was not France. The shock value of the initial  Blitzkrieg  was dissipated by the vast distances, logistical difficulties and Soviet troop numbers, all of which caused attritional losses of German forces which could not be sustained.

The impact of Hitler's involvement

Hitler's input has been heavily criticised, not least by his generals at the time. Moscow was always a more important objective to the German High Command than it was to Hitler, who was more concerned with destroying Soviet field armies and capturing vital industrial resources. His switching of the main thrust from the central front to Leningrad in the north and Ukraine in the south was to an extent militarily sensible given the weakness of Army Group Centre after the Smolensk battles and the threats to its flanks. Indeed, the diversion actually worked in the Germans’ favour since it surprised the Soviets and resulted in the destruction of huge Soviet forces around Kiev. But it also threw away Germany's only real chance of outright victory.

The early capture of Moscow would have had an undeniable psychological impact and may have been the tipping point. Guderian in particular believed that using the panzers in traditional encirclement battles played into Russian hands and gave them chances to bring forward fresh reserves. He had advocated an all-out drive on the capital. But when Hitler resumed the assault with Operation 'Typhoon' it was too late. The German Army was now fatally weakened, the weather had worsened and Soviet reinforcements had arrived.

German Intelligence failures

German intelligence failures played a large part on several levels. The Red Army had been viewed with distain, especially because Stalin’s purges of the late 1930s had removed thousands of its officers - albeit temporarily in most cases. Its  poor performance against the Finns  in the winter of 1939-1940 also encouraged the Germans. Soviet industry was deemed incapable of producing modern weapons. Most importantly, Russian troop numbers and fighting strength were continually underestimated, so that despite the losses inflicted in early encirclement battles, the Germans always faced yet more reinforcements. The High Command had only considered the Soviet western army groups in their planning, and the presence of reserve forces and uncommitted formations in the Russian interior or on the eastern borders were disregarded. Even after Operation 'Typhoon' ground to a halt in early December, the Germans still chose to believe that the Soviets had nothing left to stage a counterattack.

Soviet tank superiority

While the Germans underestimated the military potential of their opponents, they also exaggerated the capabilities of their own forces, most significantly the four Panzer Groups. The panzer divisions were the principal weapon of Blitzkrieg and at that time were far superior to the Soviets in training, leadership and tactical ability. But they were relatively weak in numbers and equipment.

German tank strength had been halved in 1940 so that the number of divisions could be doubled. Over half the tanks committed to 'Barbarossa' were obsolescent light tanks and Czech-built models, rather than the more capable PzKpfw III and IV. And there were virtually no reserves available. Hitler had so far refused to fully mobilise the German economy and so weapons production was inadequate. Even in mid-1941 only 250 new tanks were being built each month, insufficient to properly equip the army on the eve of a major new campaign, or keep up with the inevitable mechanical and combat losses. Hitler even chose to divert some of these to France and other theatres, when the demand was greatest in Russia.

The vast majority of the 10,000 or so Russian tanks facing the Germans in June 1941 were light BT series tanks or obsolete T-26 models. Huge numbers were destroyed in poorly planned and executed counterattacks. But Soviet tank development and production was already superior to that of the Germans. A new generation of tanks had entered service, namely the T-34 and KV-1. The  T-34  in particular was a major leap in tank design and came as a complete shock to the Germans when it was first encountered in July 1941. It had sloping armour - which effectively doubled its strength - and a powerful 76.2mm gun. Its reliable diesel engine gave it a good range and turn of speed, and its wide tracks could cope with mud or snow. Russian industry was already gearing up to turn it out in huge numbers.

Less than a thousand T-34s were available at the start of 'Barbarossa' and most were squandered in piecemeal actions by half-trained crews. But the Red Army could absorb significant losses of equipment as well as men. The mass mobilisation of Soviet industry had been set in train, which included relocating vital tank, aircraft and munitions factories eastwards to the  Urals . This huge logistical undertaking was already bearing fruit. It meant that despite the early defeats, the Soviet Union was far better prepared for a long war than the Germans, whose own production of tanks and other weapons would be feeble by comparison.

German logistical problems

Logistics was another hugely important factor in the German defeat. No matter how fast or far the fighting formations advanced, they were dependent on timely supplies of fuel and ammunition. This became an ever greater problem as the army progressed deeper into Soviet territory and further away from its own railheads. Not only were the distances much greater than they had been during the French campaign, but the Soviet transport infrastructure was much poorer. German engineers struggled to convert the Russian railway gauge to one which their own locomotives and rolling stock could use. Meanwhile the multitude of lorries and horse-drawn wagons in which the supplies were transported were forced to negotiate Russian dirt roads, which became virtually impassable after prolonged rain.

The debilitating effects of the weather and terrain were not properly taken into account when planning the campaign. The numerous forests, marshes and rivers slowed the advance during the summer. The autumn  Rasputitsa  and the onset of the brutal Russian winter brought it to a halt during Operation 'Typhoon'. Tank and vehicle lubricants froze as temperatures plunged to record lows. Winter clothing supplies were held up in Poland, as fuel and ammunition took priority. If anything symbolises the failure of 'Barbarossa' it is the image of inadequately equipped German troops shivering in the snows before Moscow.

The success of Soviet resistance

Perhaps the most important reason of all for the defeat of Operation 'Barbarossa' was the tenacious resistance of the defenders. The Germans completely underestimated the Soviet will to fight. Hitler's announcement that the war in the east was one of 'annihilation' and Stalin's astute call to defend 'Mother Russia' rather than his own regime gave the ordinary Russian soldier - no matter how coerced or badly led - every reason to battle to the death. Hitler's infamous 'Commissar Order', which sanctioned the execution of all captured political officers, also stiffened Russian resolve. The Russian soldier was found to be a hardy and implacable foe, and quickly gained the respect of the majority of German front-line troops. No western enemy would come close to the Soviets in sheer staying power.

Despite the failure and huge losses of 'Barbarossa', Hitler launched another major strategic offensive in June 1942, this time towards the Caucasus mountains and the oil fields of Baku beyond. Morale was still generally high and German forces maintained the capacity to inflict further massive losses on badly handled Soviet formations. In fact 1942 would be an even worse year than 1941 for the Russians. But the factors that caused 'Barbarossa' to fail now conspired to doom this new enterprise as well. As the German columns advanced across the seemingly infinite spaces of the steppe towards their distant objectives, including a city named  Stalingrad , the victory in the East that had once seemed so certain receded even further from sight.

Related content

Operation Bagration: The greatest military defeat of all time?

In the summer of 1944, Germany suffered arguably the greatest military defeat of all time. This defeat came on the Eastern Front and was known as Operation Bagration. Join IWM Curator Helen Upcraft at IWM London to explore the Soviet Union's greatest military victory. 

Tactics and the Cost of Victory in Normandy

The Normandy campaign saw the Anglo-American armies inflict a decisive defeat on the German military machine. The British Army's role was pivotal, but victory came at a price. Between D-Day and the end of August some 83,000 British, Canadian and Polish troops became casualties, of whom almost 16,000 were killed. 

Britain's Struggle To Build Effective Tanks During The Second World War

For much of the Second World War, the British Army was saddled with a succession of tanks that ranged from the bad to the barely adequate. Some were rushed into service too quickly and proved notoriously unreliable. Others spent too long in development, or only achieved a degree of usefulness after numerous modifications. Most lacked the armour to resist enemy anti-tank weapons, and nearly all were under-gunned.

The Polish Pilots Who Flew In The Battle Of Britain

On 1 September 1939 the German Army, supported by the Air Force (Luftwaffe) and Navy (Kriegsmarine) invaded Poland from three sides. Polish defences, already strained under a powerful and innovative German assault, collapsed shortly after the Soviets launched their own invasion from the east on 17 September. 

Explore our award-winning list brought to print by the IWM publishing team.

Second World War

Browse our online shop for products inspired by peoples's experiences of war.

many people without housing, especially people from the rural areas, tried to get work as janitors so as to gain a room in the city. . They did not cover the real costs, and were subsidized by the government. ) was provided by the workplace. Administrative control over housing and the movement of citizens was carried out by means of the . ." . . Albany: State University of New York Press. . London: Routledge. . 45(2): 237-51. . Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Housing and Income Distribution in Russia: Zhivago's Legacy. The World Bank Research Observer 1(2(1):19-3(2. . Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press. . New York: G. Braziller. Berkeley: University of California Press. . London: Routledge. Lewis Siegelbaum, ed. Gordonsville, VA: Palgrave. Click the image to see a larger version, uncropped and annotated.

prev next Friday essay: We all live in the world of Ayn Rand, egomaniac godmother of libertarianism. Can fiction help us navigate it? Senior Lecturer, Discipline of English and Writing, University of Sydney Disclosure statement Alexander Howard does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment. University of Sydney provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU. View all partners Love her or loathe her, Ayn Rand is an undeniably influential figure. Her contemporary admirers range from celebrities – Brad Pitt, Angelina Jolie, Rob Lowe – to politicians, including Donald Trump. Cultural commentator Lisa Duggan has called her “the ultimate mean girl”. Rand was implacably opposed to all forms of altruism, social welfare programs and governmental oversight. She also harboured a lifelong hatred of communism. She was “one of the first American writers to celebrate the creative possibilities of modern capitalism and to emphasize the economic value of independent thought,” according to intellectual biographer Jennifer Burns . And while Rand founded a philosophical movement, Objectivism, which privileged the “concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life”, her ideas are not the key to her influence. Her “blockbuster” novels, The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas Shrugged (1957), lie “at the heart of her incalculable impact,” as Duggan writes. Trump has said of The Fountainhead: “That book relates to … everything.” He told a journalist in 2016 that its depiction of the tyranny of groupthink reflects “what is happening here”. The attitude of John Galt, hero of Rand’s best known book, Atlas Shrugged, is best summed up by his famous credo: “I swear by my life and my love of it that I will never live for the sake of another man, nor ask another man to live for mine.” Of course, this has since become a rallying cry for libertarian politicians and thinkers. Atlas Shrugged attracted largely negative reviews on publication: Time called its philosophy “ludicrously naïve” and the Atlantic Monthly said it “might be mildly described as execrable claptrap”. But for Gregory Salmieri, co-editor of the Blackwell Companion to Ayn Rand (2016), the Russian-born American philosopher is “one of the most important intellectual voices in our culture”. Rand’s celebration of egotism and rapacious capitalism remains resonant today. But there’s another way she resonates with today’s culture, too. In the McCarthy-era witch trials of the 1950s, she denounced supposed communist sympathisers , participating in the very kind of public shaming that is often identified with cancel culture. Rand’s enthusiastic participation in these public show trials may seem surprising at first glance, especially as it appears to conflict with her reputation as a libertarian champion of free speech and individual rights. But perhaps we shouldn’t be too surprised. Even the loudest advocates of free expression sometimes engage in silencing others. Think, for example, of self-proclaimed free-speech absolutist (and Rand fan) Elon Musk’s tendency to suspend journalists from X when they publish articles he doesn’t agree with. This inherent contradiction – where defenders of individual liberty may also attempt to suppress opposing voices – continues to resonate in today’s political and cultural landscape, as a glance at the online swamp formerly known as Twitter demonstrates. Cancel culture: battle or moral panic? “Cancel culture has upended lives, ruined careers, undermined companies, hindered the production of knowledge, destroyed trust in institutions, and plunged us into an ever-worsening culture war,” argue researchers Greg Lukianoff and Rikki Schlott in The Cancelling of the American Mind (2023). They believe cancel culture is “part of a dysfunctional way members of our society have learned to argue and battle for power, status, and dominance”. Adrian Daub, author of the new book The Cancel Culture Panic (2024) disagrees. He sees the anxiety over cancel culture as a form of moral or ideological panic – one that distorts societal shifts by selectively focusing on certain examples, while conveniently overlooking others. He says it keeps us from finding solutions to real problems by distorting “real problems like a carnival mirror – problems of labor and job security, problems of our semi-digital public space, problems of accountability and surveillance”. These complex, often bitterly oppositional debates have long since spilled over from the academy into popular culture. The many creative works that explore cancel culture differ in approach and tone. But they all focus on the dynamics of cultural conflict – and the often unpredictable consequences of public shaming in an increasingly censorious age. We see this in recent films like Todd Field’s Tár (2022), where accusations of misconduct lead to a famous conductor’s public downfall, and Kristoffer Borgli’s Dream Scenario (2023), where an ordinary professor becomes a viral sensation, only to have his fame curdle as his public image unravels. Cancel culture is also central to two recent satirical novels that explore the trials and tribulations of cancel culture: Australian Lexi Freiman’s The Book of Ayn and American author Lionel Shriver’s Mania , both released locally this year. The shadow of Ayn Rand, with her philosophy of uncompromising individualism and rampant egotism, looms large over both these books. We’re all pretending not to be selfish People often revisit and reinterpret works by controversial authors from the past, trying to find “redeeming qualities” despite their problematic views. Freiman, whose first novel, Inappropriation (2018), was longlisted for the Miles Franklin, is curious why this kind of reappraisal hasn’t happened for Rand – whose books continue to sell by the bucketload. Rand’s work is “worth exploring”, as she says, because “we are all pretending not to be selfish, individualistic, slightly narcissistic people”. I feel like nobody’s tried to do that because we’re still living in the nightmare of the capitalist world that she envisaged. Freiman centres The Book of Ayn, her second novel, on an unreliable narrator, Anna, who becomes obsessed with Ayn Rand after being “cancelled”. Yet the author is candid in her criticism of Rand’s overstuffed fictions. They are vehicles for her ideology, and they’re not well-written. So to me, when I see an Ayn Rand book on someone’s shelf […] I think, “Oh, this person doesn’t know a good book.” Anna begins the novel (which was published in the US, by a US publisher, long before it was released in Australia), acknowledging she is a contrarian. The label has also been applied to Freiman herself, who told the Australian earlier this year that the framing of Inappropriation, a satire of identity politics, carefully avoided the novel’s subject. “They were afraid to say it was a satire of identity politics […] because they were afraid of cancel culture, ironically.” While The Book of Ayn did not initially get an Australian release, it was prominently featured in US literary and cultural outlets, including the New York Times , the New Yorker and The Daily Show – and Freiman was a guest at this year’s Brisbane Writers Festival . In The Book of Ayn, Anna says: Maybe the verboten felt more alive; maybe it just got me more attention. Maybe they were the same thing. Whichever it was, the culture had now changed. After nearly 40 years of self-declared bad behaviour, Anna lands herself in hot water after publishing a satire on America’s opioid crisis, castigated by the New York Times as irredeemably “classist”. Anna, who has been living rent-free in a swanky Madison Avenue pied-à-terre, admits (to the reader, at least) she knew she was courting controversy: I’d known that scatological humor was now banned from descriptions of the rural poor; that you were no longer allowed to write about the working class if you’d gone to a Manhattan prep school; that “Mountain Dew” was an unacceptable punch line. But there were so many new rules – all set by college students paying two hundred thousand dollars for their humanism. The New York Times labels Anna a narcissist. This shocks and confuses her: she had always assumed “narcissists were very attractive people who couldn’t admit when they were wrong, and I possessed neither of those qualities”. Bruised and bewildered, she starts to burn her remaining social bridges. Having been turfed out of a female genital mutilation awareness luncheon for expressing the opinion that the clitoris is actually “privileged”, she randomly bumps into an Ayn Rand walking tour huddled on the corner of Lexington Avenue. The group is “looking up at a telephone pole where a hawk was tearing into the body of a bloody pigeon”. Intrigued, Anna follows this group of “quiet, stoic people who appeared to believe that the planet was actually cooling” into a nearby Starbucks. She asks them about Rand, about whom she knows next to nothing, bar that she was the godmother of American libertarianism who had written two very long, didactic novels. I had always considered her the gateway drug for bad husbands to quit their jobs and start online stock trading. Growing giddy on heresy Returning home, Anna reads up on the founder of Objectivism . She finds herself inexorably drawn to Rand’s idiosyncratic take on life, the world, and everything in it: She said that selfishness was a form of care; that self-responsibility was the ultimate freedom. Her ideas had the uncanny chime of paradox. The dizzy zing of the counterintuitive. She wasn’t funny but I enjoyed her thoughts like I enjoyed jokes. Like anything audacious; true because it’s wrong. Growing giddy on her “new heresy,” Anna sets off on an increasingly bizarre – and very funny – journey of self discovery, age-inappropriate romance, and re-cancellation. Her adventure culminates in an “ego suicide” workshop on the Greek island of Lesvos, the experience of which leaves her anxious that the only thing she’s now capable of writing is Eat, Pray, Love as “narrated by Humbert Humbert ”. Freiman has no problem acknowledging Rand “was basically the worst person I could write a book about, which really appealed to me”. By the same token, she appreciates that it is the conflict between selfishness and altruism that is Ayn Rand’s whole philosophy that I feel is kind of distilled in the artistic temperament, in the artist’s personality […] And narcissism plays into that really beautifully and is also funny. This nuanced take on things is, I think, characteristic of Freiman’s writing in general. It informs her take on the politics of cancel culture, which she refuses to see in purely negative terms. For instance, it can, as Freiman affirms, help to shift the cultural needle and, occasionally, move us towards new forms of “enlightenment” – provided we are at least willing to hear each other out. Freiman is emphatic on this point. She is searching for something “deeper than just a kind of knee-jerk, reactive response”. She is, moreover, “always looking for the person who everyone else disagrees with and trying to see the place that I might agree with them”. This, in turn, chimes with her understanding of the power of satire as a genre. Freiman maintains that when it comes to satire, self-exposure is just part of the deal. You get energy from a type of writing that’s very close to opining, and so you have to accept the brunt of your readers’ disagreement. A satire, she believes, is “a kind of argument, though not – in the best cases – one that seeks to drive home a definitive point”. She acknowledges that ideas are ultimately replaced by human complexity – something that unfolds, by degrees, in The Book of Ayn. “But obviously, it’s a risky time to be a satirist.” “The thing I’m trying to do is to say something that feels true to me,” Freiman insists , “and if that means that I’m going to offend a few people, then that’s OK.” Provocative. Empathetic. Risky. These are three reasons why, if you’ve yet to do so, you should really spend some time getting to know Lexi Freiman and The Book of Ayn. ‘Mindless’ herd behaviour? Self-described iconoclast Lionel Shriver has been, at her own estimate, the target of multiple attempted cancellations – including one in Australia in 2016, after she delivered a speech on Fiction and Identity Politics at the Brisbane Writers Festival while wearing a sombrero. Her speech prompted some affronted audience members to storm out – and sparked worldwide media debate , including accusations of promoting racial supremacy . Shriver’s argument essentially boiled down to the belief that “the last thing fiction writers need is restrictions on what belongs to us”. Her attendant idea that “writers have to preserve the right to wear many hats” was literally illustrated by her headwear. In a subsequent interview with Time , she said: The whole notion of re-enfencing ourselves into little groups, first off, encourages pigeonholing. It means that we don’t read books about people who are different; we just read books about people who are just like us. She continued: “we all the more think of each other in terms of membership of a collective”. Shriver has reservations about collectives and collective behaviour. In her collected essays , she writes: Herd behaviour is by nature mindless. Parties to modern excommunication never seem to make measured decisions on the merits for themselves […] but race blindly to join the stampede. What if calling someone stupid was illegal? These ideas reverberate throughout Mania, a dystopian novel that riffs on George Orwell’s 1984 (1949) and Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale (1985). It is set in an alternative version of the 2010s, against a backdrop of heightened societal sensitivity to mental ability. Its cover tagline is: “what if calling someone stupid was illegal?” The novel tells the tale of Pearson Converse, a untenured English academic and contrarian living in a quiet college town in Pennsylvania with her partner Wade, who works as a tree surgeon, and their three children. Mania opens with a phone call from school. Pearson’s eldest, the intellectually precocious Darwin, has been accused of bullying: he “ridiculed one of his classmates” and “employed language we consider unacceptable in a supportive environment, and which I will not repeat”. Darwin has been caught using the term “dummy”, now considered a reprehensible slur – and is suspended for it. In 2010, in Shriver’s fictional universe, the improbably named Carswell Dreyfus-Boxford published a “game-changing, era-defining” book, titled “The Calumny of IQ: Why Discrimination Against ‘Dumb People’ Is the Last Great Civil Rights Fight”. “At best,” Pearson recalls somewhat dismissively, the ambitious got through the set-piece introduction of forty pages, full of heartrending anecdotes of capable young people whose self-esteem was crushed by an early diagnosis of subpar intelligence. Despite being “widely ridiculed” upon initial publication, The Calumny of IQ quickly started to gain traction in certain circles. Though the “cerebral elite” at first “lampooned the notion that stupidity is a fiction as exceptionally stupid”, their “sharpest tacks”, the novel tells us, “jumped on the fashionable bandwagon first”. Thus, the Mental Parity movement was born. As the critic Laura Miller observes , this imaginary ideology “not only borrows from the left’s obsession with egalitarianism, safetyism and language hygiene but also draws on the right’s mistrust of expertise and credentialism”. She points out that the novel’s critique “could have bipartisan appeal if it weren’t so patently absurd”. Signs supporting “cognitive neutrality” pop up on suburban lawns. The New York Times crossword suddenly disappears. Everything begins to unravel. The suspiciously articulate Barack Obama is one of the first public casualties. “Never having gotten the memo about suppressing that silver tongue,” Pearson laments, “he still deliberately rubbed the popular nose in his own articulacy”. Declaring him an electoral liability, the Democrats stage an internal coup and unceremoniously oust him from the White House. They replace him with “the impressively unimpressive” Joe Biden, whose “delectably leaden” oratorical style proves a hit with voters captivated by “cognitive egalitarianism”. This decision brings disastrous consequences – most notably, paving the way for the 2016 election of Donald Trump (who runs as a Democrat). “Whatever you think of his policies,” Pearson notes, “the big galoot has radically transformed the template for high office in the United States”. From this point on, we read, it is a given that in order for a political figure to be considered a presidential contender, he or she will necessarily be badly educated, uninformed, poorly spoken, crass, oblivious to the rest the world, unattractive and preferably fat, unsolicitous of advice from the more experienced, suspicious of expertise, inclined to violate constitutional due process if only from perfect ignorance of the Constitution, self-regarding without justification, and boastful about what once would have been perceived as his or her shortcomings. Pearson testifies to America’s steady and systematic decline, including imploding healthcare (“wrong doses of anaesthetic and infections from inadequate care”) and education. International students turn their backs on American universities, leaving the sector financially exposed. Domestic students start reporting their teachers for acts of “cognitive bigotry” and similar ideological transgressions. Much to her horror (if not surprise), the nonconformist Pearson finds herself the subject of scrutiny from her own students. In one of her creative writing classes, Pearson rants about the rank hypocrisy of it all: Are you people really so stupid that you believe this claptrap about “everyone being as smart as everyone else,” or are you cynically playing along with a lie that you know is a lie? She calls the US “a laughingstock!” and warns: “China and Russia think we’re retards , And they’re right!” Complexity vs point-scoring Pearson’s diatribe, which leads to her cancellation, is emblematic of Mania as a whole. Harangues of this sort, which quickly become tiresome, dilute the novel’s satirical impact. It brings to mind the overwrought rhetorical flourishes of Ayn Rand’s prose. Indeed, this intemperate passage could almost have been lifted verbatim from the pages of Atlas Shrugged. Rand’s hero, John Galt, an egotistical scientist and inventor, is given to lengthy, impassioned speeches about the virtue of selfishness , the dangers of collectivism, and the innate superiority of the elite. As Lexi Freiman says, you have to be “a bit into” what Rand’s saying “to plow through 1,000 pages”. She calls it “belabored […] relentless and exhausting” and of course, “didactic”. Freiman is spot on here. And as I write, I can’t help but think of my own experience with Shriver’s Mania. As with Rand, Shriver’s prose is weighed down by a barrage of ideological rants that overwhelm the story, sacrificing nuance and narrative in favour of blunt, often exhausting polemics. To be perfectly honest, it left me questioning who the novel was intended for. Pearson’s rhetoric does not align exactly with Galt’s unfettered enthusiasm for laissez-faire capitalism. But her outrage at a world that increasingly prizes “uncredentialed mediocrity” and enforces “cognitive equality” echoes what we can describe as a peculiarly Randian disdain for anything that undermines individual brilliance or suppresses intellectual achievement. Shriver, who makes no bones about her libertarian sensibility, has claimed she doesn’t “sit around reading Ayn Rand novels”. However, with its consistent embrace of individualist ideals and critiques of collectivism, I find, as do others , the parallels between Shriver’s recent work and Rand’s infamous novels hard to ignore. While Freiman is alive to the complexities and contradictions of cancel culture, Shriver seems intent on delivering a straightforward ideological message, which renders her work, much like Rand’s, a relentless – and ultimately fruitless – exercise in polemical point-scoring. One of these writers proffers a useful critique of our present predicament and narcissistic tendencies, and gestures towards a more nuanced understanding of our shared societal challenges. objectivism Friday essay Cancel culture Lecturer in Strategy Innovation and Entrepreneurship (Education Focused) (Identified) Professor of Indigenous Cultural and Creative Industries (Identified) Chief People & Culture Officer Lecturer / senior lecturer in construction and project management. Research Fellow in Dynamic Energy and Mass Budget Modelling Living Space Imtiaz Dharker GradeSaver offers study guides, application and school paper editing services, literature essays, college application essays and writing help. Living Space Material Study Guide Join Now to View Premium Content GradeSaver provides access to 2366 study guide PDFs and quizzes, 11012 literature essays, 2788 sample college application essays, 926 lesson plans, and ad-free surfing in this premium content, “Members Only” section of the site! Membership includes a 10% discount on all editing orders. Living Space Essays 321 IMAGES The Ideal Living Space Write a short essay on Space (PDF) The Living Space of the Image Lived Spaces and Their Descriptions in Students' Essays Living space in architecture Essay Example life in space essay VIDEO Key Historical Concepts in Holocaust Education: Lebensraum ("Living Space") Everything About Living in Space TOP-10 Essay Topics about Space Exploration HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PAPER |Beginners Guide to Writing Quality Essays from An Oxford Grad Student How to write a basic paragraph 29 Sneaky Tips For Small Space Living COMMENTS ESA Since then, scientists around the world have had the benefit of years of data on the effects of long-term space living. (The record for a long-duration mission is still held by Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov, who completed a 438-day tour of duty aboard the Mir space station in 1995.) The crews of the ISS are already making full use of that ... Living Space Essay Questions Living Space Essay Questions. 1. How does the form of "Living Space" support the poem's content? "Living Space" is composed of three stanzas of varying length written in free verse. This lack of a formal structure (also with no regular rhyme scheme or delineated meter) helps construct the image of the ramshackle housing in the poem. The Living Space: Psychological Well-Being and Mental Health in Spaces with curvilinear/curved features, in comparison with those with angular/rectilinear ones, were preferred among different ages , and induced higher positive emotions such as pleasure [42,43,44,45], relaxation, safety, privacy , and a desire to approach . The majority of these studies relied largely on subjective semantic scales, where ... Living Space by Imtiaz Dharker Analysis of Living Space Lines 1-3. There are just not enough. straight lines. That. is the problem. The beginning of 'Living Space' is so distinctly to-the-point that the reader automatically has insight on why there is a problem, even before the problem itself is addressed. Dharker could have begun the poem by focusing on the home in a more direct way, but the decision to first give ... Living Space Summary and Analysis of Summary and Analysis The eggs gather the light into themselves as if they are the bright, thin walls of faith. Analysis. The speaker in the poem "Living Space" shows a lyrical and architectural eye while observing a building in an impoverished area, ultimately suggesting the human resilience that accompanies struggle. In the first section of the poem, the speaker ... Living Space Quotes and Analysis Living Space study guide contains a biography of Imtiaz Dharker, literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis. Best summary PDF, themes, and quotes. More books than SparkNotes. Yuri Gagarin: Facts about the first human in space Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin was a Soviet pilot and cosmonaut who became the first human in space. In 1961, he orbited Earth aboard the Vostok 1 space capsule, the first-ever crewed spacecraft. As a ... Essay On Living Space Essay On Living Space. 3175 Words13 Pages. LIVING SPACE. Space is an area which is an essential element that we use in our daily living. Space is not only related to Interiors but also exteriors as well where we see forms, hear sounds, feel gentle breezes and the warmth of the sun. We enter a house, and we feel a sense of shelter and enclosure ... Lebensraum e. Lebensraum (German pronunciation: [ˈleːbənsˌʁaʊm] ⓘ, living space) is a German concept of expansionism and Völkisch nationalism, the philosophy and policies of which were common to German politics from the 1890s to the 1940s. First popularized around 1901, [2] Lebensraum became a geopolitical goal of Imperial Germany in World War I ... Analysis: comparing London and Living Space Remote lesson comparing Blake's London with Dharker's Living Space for Eduqas' poetry anthology Living Space Study Guide Living Space Study Guide. " Living Space," first published in 1997, is a poem by Imtiaz Dharker. Dharker is a poet, artist, and filmmaker whose work traverses the borders of Pakistan, her country of origin, and her adopted countries of India and the UK. Several themes in her work include belonging to multiple cultures, feeling like an outsider ... Living Space Poem Summary and Analysis Learn More. "Living Space" was written by Pakistan-born British poet Imtiaz Dharker. As the title might suggest, the poem describes someone's living space—that is, their home. Dharker has said that the poem describes a typical dwelling in the slums of the Indian city of Mumbai, but this isn't stated explicitly in the text itself. Living in Space In space, astronauts' bodies change. On Earth, our lower body and legs carry our weight. This helps keep our bones and muscles strong. In space, astronauts float. They do not use their legs much. Their lower backs begin to lose strength. Their leg muscles do too. The bones begin to get weak and thin. LIVING SPACE Imtiaz Dharker Essay RESPONSE- 9-1 EDUQAS GCSE ENG LIT NEW This resource is a model essay answering the following question: How does Dharker present living conditions/welfare in 'Living Space'? The essay response in this resource covers all aspects needed for a grade 8/9 answer. More specifically, AO1 (Textual References), AO2 (Language, Form & Structure) and AO3 (Context). Is Vertical Living the Future of Architecture? 9 Mins Read. Architecture is a profession that is deeply affected by every aspect of a human's life. As the population increases exponentially and global warming raises the sea levels, vertical living poses a solution for the eventual scarcity of land and holds the future of habitation on our planet. "Architecture is a reflection of the ... Living Space Summary Living Space Summary. The poem begins with the speaker stating that there are just not enough straight lines. This is a problem. Without things being flat and parallel, a building cannot function properly. In this particular structure, beams crookedly balance on supports thrust off the vertical, nails clutch at open seams, and the whole ... Grade 9 London vs Living Space Essay Age range: 14-16. Resource type: Assessment and revision. File previews. docx, 17.35 KB. Full essay that shows the sense of place in both London by William Blake and Living Space by Imtiaz Dharker. The grade 9 essay will help you achieve excellent grades and give you a helping hand. It contains fully fleshed out in depth language analysis. Why Did Operation Barbarossa Fail One of the tenets of that ideology was the idea of 'lebensraum or 'living space'. The creation of a Germanic Aryan Empire in Eastern Europe that would grant the resources needed for self-sufficiency. Having defeated France and the Low Countries in just six weeks, Germany was confident of capturing that land from the Soviet Union. Communal Living in Russia Yet another way to improve one's living conditions, though not by a lot, was the "exchange": you could exchange your housing with other people. If, for example, a family with one large room in a communal apartment split in two (for example, after a divorce), those people could exchange their living space for two small rooms in different ... Living Space Themes Architects concern themselves with the way natural light falls in a space. In the final image of the poem, eggs are metaphorized into houses of faith. Their walls are thin and bright as a result of their "Gathering the light / Into themselves" (Lines 19-20). This speaks to a resilient nature that the speaker suggests is part of human design ... Friday essay: We all live in the world of Ayn Rand, egomaniac godmother The shadow of Ayn Rand (beloved by Donald Trump and Elon Musk) looms large over new novels by Lexi Freiman and Lionel Shriver, which satirise cancel culture. One of them is a useful critique of ... Living Space Essays GradeSaver offers study guides, application and school paper editing services, literature essays, college application essays and writing help. Living Space Material. Study Guide; Q & A; Join Now to View Premium Content. GradeSaver provides access to 2364 study guide PDFs and quizzes, ... essay homework paper phd project resume review speech study thesis