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NEWS AND VIEWS
16 January 2023

Self-publishing is common among academic-journal editors

Molly M. King ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9558-8622 0

Molly M. King is in the Department of Sociology, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California 95053, USA.

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Journal editors determine which manuscripts go out for review, which reviewers are chosen and how reviews are adjudicated and processed. Consequently, they exercise considerable influence over scholars’ careers. Although high-profile scientific journals tend to have full-time editors, most journals are edited by academics. Writing in Nature Human Behaviour , Liu et al. 1 present a comprehensive analysis of the publication records of academic editors. Their results suggest that the prevalence of self-publication could exacerbate inequalities in academia.

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Nature 613 , 445-446 (2023)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-00028-x

Liu, F. M., Holme, P., Chiesa, M., AlShebli, B. & Rahwan, T. Nature Hum. Behav . https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01498-1 (2023).

Article Google Scholar

Lockhart, J. W., King, M. M. & Munsch, C. Preprint at SocArXiv https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/vedq6 (2022).

Huang, J., Gates, A. J., Sinatra, R. & Barabási, A.-L. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117 , 4609–4616 (2020).

Article PubMed Google Scholar

Cech, E. A. & Blair-Loy, M. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116 , 4182–4187 (2019).

Joya, M., Lundquist, J. H. & Templer, A. Sociol. Forum 27 , 300–323 (2012).

Thelwall, M., Bailey, C., Tobin, C. & Bradshaw, N.-A. J. Informetr. 13 , 149–169 (2019).

Fox, M. F., Whittington, K. B. & Linkova, M. in The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies 4th edn (eds Felt, U., Fouche, R., Miller, C. A. & Smith-Doerr, L.) Ch. 24 (MIT Press, 2017).

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Nature 609 , 653 (2022).

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The author declares no competing interests.

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Tags: Book Cover Design , Book Marketing , ISBN , Self-Publishing

Self-publishing involves a lot of steps like editing, getting a book cover designed, and deciding your book’s pricing. We realize how planning to self-publish can be overwhelming. To help you plan, we’ve created a simple checklist of 14 self-publishing steps.

In one of the sections below, we’ve also given a simple, downloadable checklist with estimated timelines for every step. So without any delay, let’s first see these steps for self-publishing!

Self-editing
Conduct market research
Get professional editing done
Get a book cover designed
Ensure proper book formatting
Obtain an ISBN for your book
Create an author profile, author bio, and book description
Write or get a copyright page designed
Opt for book conversion and distribution services
Craft your book blurb
Decide your book’s pricing
Finalize marketing strategies
Upload your book on self-publishing platforms
Book promotion (Important checklist!)
Self-publishing timeline checklist (Downloadable)

Now let’s see a checklist for every step in detail!

Your book deserves the best – get professional self-publishing services! Learn more

1. Self-editing

It’s important to take a break after completing your first draft before self-editing. This allows you to revisit your text with a fresh perspective.

Check and correct any plot holes, inconsistencies, and pacing issues.
Determine if the characters and scenes are well-developed and accurately portrayed.
Verify if the timelines and facts mentioned are correct.
Analyze if the writing style , tone, flow, and structure are consistent.
Review the book for spelling, punctuation , and grammar errors .
Give your book to alpha readers and make changes as per their feedback.

Once your first draft is complete, you also need to select a book title . After selecting the title, you can move to the next step.

2. Conduct market research

At this step, perform research to create a book description , author bio, and author profile. You can also take inspiration from the best book covers to get ideas for your book cover. Here’s a simple checklist for this step:

Save or note down book descriptions, author bios, and author profiles similar to your book genre (For this step, check the author profile and book description of books in the same/similar categories on the book’s Amazon page.)
Save the best book covers related to your genre for reference.
Check the books’ back covers for ideas for author bios. For some books, check the book’s last page or inner part of the hardcover for the author bio.
Create a list of keywords related to your genre.

With this, you also need to conduct market research about self-publishing costs . This involves comparing the prices and features of various editing, formatting , book cover design , and self-publishing companies . You must also determine the budget for creating a copyright page, blurb, author profile, book description, author bio, ISBN, book conversion, distribution, and marketing. Once you’re done with this, you can move to the next step!

3. Get professional editing done

After selecting the best editing services, follow these steps after receiving the edited manuscript:

Analyze if the manuscript has improved clarity, coherence, and overall readability.
Check for consistency in style, tone, and formatting.
Ensure all grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors are rectified.
Verify that the editor’s suggestions align with your point of view and intentions.

4. Ensure proper formatting

Once you choose a book formatting service, you need to check the following after receiving the formatted manuscript:

Proofread the entire book for any formatting errors.
Check consistency in fonts , font sizes, margins, and spacing.
Verify the accuracy of the table of contents and page numbers.
Ensure all hyperlinks and footnotes are working correctly (for eBooks).
Review the visual quality of images and graphics.

5. Get a book cover designed

You can either design a book cover or hire a freelancer/ book cover design services . Once your book cover is ready, you need to ensure the following:

Assess whether the cover design is eye-catching and memorable
Check that the title, subtitle, and author name are clearly legible
Determine if the font and font size used are correct
Assess the quality and resolution of any images, illustrations, or graphics used
Verify that the cover design meets the technical requirements of your chosen publishing platforms (e.g., Amazon Kindle Direct Publishing, IngramSpark)
Ensure you have received the necessary file formats from the designer (e.g., JPG, PNG)

6. Obtain an ISBN for your book

At this step, you can get an International Standard Book Number ( ISBN ) through local or government agencies or self-publishing companies . Several platforms like PaperTrue, BookBaby, IngramSpark, and Draft2Digital can help you get an ISBN. After this, you need to ensure the following:

Check if the ISBN is 13 digits.
Verify if the prefix is 978 or 979 for the 13-digit ISBN.
Analyze whether the ISBN matches the specific book, edition, and format.
Ensure the ISBN contains only valid characters (digits 0-9, and ‘X’ for ISBN-10).
Cross-reference the ISBN with official sources or databases.

7. Create an author profile, author bio, and book description

You can hire a publishing company/ freelancer to do this for you. Alternatively, you can create one on your own. For all three steps, follow the checklist given below!

a. Author bio

Keep it concise and engaging (aim for 100-200 words).
Include relevant professional achievements, awards, writing, experience, or credentials.
Mention any personal details that help readers connect with you.
Use a third-person point of view for a professional tone.
Proofread for clarity, grammar, and spelling errors.

b. Book description

Start with a compelling hook or tagline.
Provide a brief, enticing summary of the book’s plot , themes , or main characters.
Include relevant keywords and genre-specific terms.
Add reviews from famous personalities or influencers. (Optional)
Close with a strong call to action to encourage readers to buy or read the book.

c. Author profile

At this step, you need to create an author profile for Goodreads, Amazon, and other platforms. Once you determine the platforms, follow these steps:

Choose a professional, high-quality author photo that reflects your genre and brand.
Write a concise, engaging bio that highlights your unique background and writing style.
Include links to your author’s website, blog, and social media profiles.
List any previous publications, awards, or notable achievements.
Ensure consistency in branding and messaging across all profile elements.
Add reviews from any famous personalities or organizations.

8. Write or get a copyright page designed

Once you write a copyright page or get it made by a reliable publishing company, check the following:

The copyright symbol (©) or the word “Copyright” is present followed by the year of publication and the name of the copyright owner
The phrase “All rights reserved” to indicate that the copyright owner retains all rights to the work is present.
The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) for all book formats is included.
All necessary disclaimers, such as “This is a work of fiction. Names, characters, places, and incidents are either products of the author’s imagination or are used fictitiously” should be there in the text.
Ensure that the manuscript provides credit for any significant quotations, excerpts, or materials used in the book that are not in the public domain (if applicable).

9. Opt for book conversion and distribution services

You need to decide which book formats you’ll require (MOBI, PDF, or other). MOBI is a file format required for eBooks and PDF is a format required for printing physical copies.

With this, you also need to determine whether you require hardcover, paperback, eBook, or audiobook conversion. Furthermore, you need to make decisions about whether you want print-on-demand or bulk printing, and online platforms, libraries, and retail outlets for distribution.

After making these decisions, follow the checklist given below:

Confirm the file formats provided by the conversion service are compatible with your chosen distribution platforms.
Verify that the converted files maintain the original formatting, layout, and design elements.
Test the converted files on various devices and e-readers to ensure proper display and functionality.
Ensure your distribution service offers access to your desired sales channels and territories.
Review the distribution agreement, including royalty rates, payment terms, and any exclusive distribution clauses .

10. Craft your book blurb

A blurb is an exciting sneak peek at your book’s content. It is mentioned on the book’s back cover. Ensure that the blurb contains the following elements:

A clear and compelling book
An introduction to the main characters
A summary of what the book is about
A powerful conclusion to intrigue readers

Now let’s see the next step of this self-publishing checklist!

11. Decide your book’s pricing

This is a crucial step before uploading your book on the self-publishing cost. Following is a checklist to help you decide the most appropriate pricing:

Research prices of similar books in your genre and compare them to your book’s length and format.
Consider your book’s production costs, including editing, cover design, formatting, and ISBN purchase.
Evaluate your target audience’s purchasing power and willingness to pay for your book.
Assess your book’s perceived value based on its content, quality, and author reputation.
Ensure your pricing strategy aligns with your overall marketing and promotional plans.

Now let’s see the next step of this checklist for self-publishing a book!

12. Finalize marketing strategies

This includes planning your book launch and deciding how to promote your book on social media. From a book teaser and promotional video to book launch events in cafes and libraries, you need to organize everything.

Following are the steps you need to follow at this stage:

Confirm that you have detailed profiles of your target audience, including preferred online platforms.
Verify that your marketing budget is clearly defined.
Check that you have an active and consistent social media presence, with a content calendar and scheduled posts.
Get high-quality promotional materials ready like digital graphics, physical items, and an up-to-date author website ready.
Review your book launch plan. Finalize the event schedule, promotional activities, and outreach efforts.

You can also start a pre-launch campaign by sharing insights about your book on social media. This will create a buzz about your book before its launch.

13. Upload your book on the self-publishing platform

This is the crucial step after which you can begin marketing your book. At this stage, follow this checklist for self-publishing a book:

Format your manuscript according to platform guidelines.
Prepare and upload your book cover.
Add your book metadata (Title, Author, Description, Keywords).
Set your book pricing and royalty options
Select your book distribution location.
Preview and check details before uploading.

14. Book promotion (Important checklist!)

Now, you can start promoting your book as per the finalized marketing strategies. Following are the steps that you need to follow at this point:

Announce the launch on social media.
Send out a press release.
Organize a launch event or virtual reading.
Engage with book bloggers and reviewers.
Run promotional campaigns and ads.
Update your author’s website with launch details.
Send an email newsletter to your subscribers.
Offer limited-time discounts or freebies.
Participate in author interviews or podcasts.
Encourage readers to leave reviews on online platforms.

In the next section, we’ve given a simple downloadable self-publishing checklist with a timeline.

15. Self-publishing timeline checklist

self-publishing timeline checklist.

Note: The timings given are estimated timings and can change (Depending on your book’s complexity and service providers’ deadlines). You can customize the self-publishing timelines as required.

Now you can begin your self-publishing journey! We’d also love to help you achieve your self-publishing dream. At PaperTrue, our trained team provides high-quality self-publishing services like editing, book cover design, formatting, securing an ISBN, and crafting a copyright page.

Not only this, but we also can upload your book on online self-publishing platforms! If you require paperback and hardcover book printing services , we’ve got you covered. We can also create a promotional video, blurb, teaser, promotional post, and press release for book marketing.

Feel free to reach out about any of our offered services!

What did you think about this self-publishing checklist? Share your thoughts in the comments section!

Here are other useful resources for you:

What Is Amazon Self-Publishing? Pros, Cons & Key Insights
Paperback vs. Hardcover in 2024: Which One to Pick?

Frequently Asked Questions

What do i need to know to self-publish, what is the easiest way to self-publish, what to do before self-publishing.

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Home » How to Publish a Research Paper – Step by Step Guide

How to Publish a Research Paper – Step by Step Guide

Table of Contents

Publishing a research paper is an important step for researchers to disseminate their findings to a wider audience and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their field. Whether you are a graduate student, a postdoctoral fellow, or an established researcher, publishing a paper requires careful planning, rigorous research, and clear writing. In this process, you will need to identify a research question , conduct a thorough literature review , design a methodology, analyze data, and draw conclusions. Additionally, you will need to consider the appropriate journals or conferences to submit your work to and adhere to their guidelines for formatting and submission. In this article, we will discuss some ways to publish your Research Paper.

How to Publish a Research Paper

To Publish a Research Paper follow the guide below:

Conduct original research : Conduct thorough research on a specific topic or problem. Collect data, analyze it, and draw conclusions based on your findings.
Write the paper : Write a detailed paper describing your research. It should include an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
Choose a suitable journal or conference : Look for a journal or conference that specializes in your research area. You can check their submission guidelines to ensure your paper meets their requirements.
Prepare your submission: Follow the guidelines and prepare your submission, including the paper, abstract, cover letter, and any other required documents.
Submit the paper: Submit your paper online through the journal or conference website. Make sure you meet the submission deadline.
Peer-review process : Your paper will be reviewed by experts in the field who will provide feedback on the quality of your research, methodology, and conclusions.
Revisions : Based on the feedback you receive, revise your paper and resubmit it.
Acceptance : Once your paper is accepted, you will receive a notification from the journal or conference. You may need to make final revisions before the paper is published.
Publication : Your paper will be published online or in print. You can also promote your work through social media or other channels to increase its visibility.

How to Choose Journal for Research Paper Publication

Here are some steps to follow to help you select an appropriate journal:

Identify your research topic and audience : Your research topic and intended audience should guide your choice of journal. Identify the key journals in your field of research and read the scope and aim of the journal to determine if your paper is a good fit.
Analyze the journal’s impact and reputation : Check the impact factor and ranking of the journal, as well as its acceptance rate and citation frequency. A high-impact journal can give your paper more visibility and credibility.
Consider the journal’s publication policies : Look for the journal’s publication policies such as the word count limit, formatting requirements, open access options, and submission fees. Make sure that you can comply with the requirements and that the journal is in line with your publication goals.
Look at recent publications : Review recent issues of the journal to evaluate whether your paper would fit in with the journal’s current content and style.
Seek advice from colleagues and mentors: Ask for recommendations and suggestions from your colleagues and mentors in your field, especially those who have experience publishing in the same or similar journals.
Be prepared to make changes : Be prepared to revise your paper according to the requirements and guidelines of the chosen journal. It is also important to be open to feedback from the editor and reviewers.

List of Journals for Research Paper Publications

There are thousands of academic journals covering various fields of research. Here are some of the most popular ones, categorized by field:

General/Multidisciplinary

Nature: https://www.nature.com/
Science: https://www.sciencemag.org/
PLOS ONE: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS): https://www.pnas.org/
The Lancet: https://www.thelancet.com/
JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association): https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama

Social Sciences/Humanities

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/psp
Journal of Consumer Research: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/journals/jcr
Journal of Educational Psychology: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/edu
Journal of Applied Psychology: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/apl
Journal of Communication: https://academic.oup.com/joc
American Journal of Political Science: https://ajps.org/
Journal of International Business Studies: https://www.jibs.net/
Journal of Marketing Research: https://www.ama.org/journal-of-marketing-research/

Natural Sciences

Journal of Biological Chemistry: https://www.jbc.org/
Cell: https://www.cell.com/
Science Advances: https://advances.sciencemag.org/
Chemical Reviews: https://pubs.acs.org/journal/chreay
Angewandte Chemie: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15213765
Physical Review Letters: https://journals.aps.org/prl/
Journal of Geophysical Research: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/2156531X
Journal of High Energy Physics: https://link.springer.com/journal/13130

Engineering/Technology

IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=5962385
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=59
IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=42
IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=87
Journal of Engineering Mechanics: https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jenmdt
Journal of Materials Science: https://www.springer.com/journal/10853
Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/jcej
Journal of Mechanical Design: https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/mechanicaldesign

Medical/Health Sciences

New England Journal of Medicine: https://www.nejm.org/
The BMJ (formerly British Medical Journal): https://www.bmj.com/
Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA): https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama
Annals of Internal Medicine: https://www.acpjournals.org/journal/aim
American Journal of Epidemiology: https://academic.oup.com/aje
Journal of Clinical Oncology: https://ascopubs.org/journal/jco
Journal of Infectious Diseases: https://academic.oup.com/jid

List of Conferences for Research Paper Publications

There are many conferences that accept research papers for publication. The specific conferences you should consider will depend on your field of research. Here are some suggestions for conferences in a few different fields:

Computer Science and Information Technology:

IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications (INFOCOM): https://www.ieee-infocom.org/
ACM SIGCOMM Conference on Data Communication: https://conferences.sigcomm.org/sigcomm/
IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP): https://www.ieee-security.org/TC/SP/
ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS): https://www.sigsac.org/ccs/
ACM Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (CHI): https://chi2022.acm.org/

Engineering:

IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA): https://www.ieee-icra.org/
International Conference on Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering (ICMAE): http://www.icmae.org/
International Conference on Civil and Environmental Engineering (ICCEE): http://www.iccee.org/
International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering (ICMSE): http://www.icmse.org/
International Conference on Energy and Power Engineering (ICEPE): http://www.icepe.org/

Natural Sciences:

American Chemical Society National Meeting & Exposition: https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/meetings/national-meeting.html
American Physical Society March Meeting: https://www.aps.org/meetings/march/
International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology (ICEST): http://www.icest.org/
International Conference on Natural Science and Environment (ICNSE): http://www.icnse.org/
International Conference on Life Science and Biological Engineering (LSBE): http://www.lsbe.org/

Social Sciences:

Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association (ASA): https://www.asanet.org/annual-meeting-2022
International Conference on Social Science and Humanities (ICSSH): http://www.icssh.org/
International Conference on Psychology and Behavioral Sciences (ICPBS): http://www.icpbs.org/
International Conference on Education and Social Science (ICESS): http://www.icess.org/
International Conference on Management and Information Science (ICMIS): http://www.icmis.org/

How to Publish a Research Paper in Journal

Publishing a research paper in a journal is a crucial step in disseminating scientific knowledge and contributing to the field. Here are the general steps to follow:

Choose a research topic : Select a topic of your interest and identify a research question or problem that you want to investigate. Conduct a literature review to identify the gaps in the existing knowledge that your research will address.
Conduct research : Develop a research plan and methodology to collect data and conduct experiments. Collect and analyze data to draw conclusions that address the research question.
Write a paper: Organize your findings into a well-structured paper with clear and concise language. Your paper should include an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Use academic language and provide references for your sources.
Choose a journal: Choose a journal that is relevant to your research topic and audience. Consider factors such as impact factor, acceptance rate, and the reputation of the journal.
Follow journal guidelines : Review the submission guidelines and formatting requirements of the journal. Follow the guidelines carefully to ensure that your paper meets the journal’s requirements.
Submit your paper : Submit your paper to the journal through the online submission system or by email. Include a cover letter that briefly explains the significance of your research and why it is suitable for the journal.
Wait for reviews: Your paper will be reviewed by experts in the field. Be prepared to address their comments and make revisions to your paper.
Revise and resubmit: Make revisions to your paper based on the reviewers’ comments and resubmit it to the journal. If your paper is accepted, congratulations! If not, consider revising and submitting it to another journal.
Address reviewer comments : Reviewers may provide comments and suggestions for revisions to your paper. Address these comments carefully and thoughtfully to improve the quality of your paper.
Submit the final version: Once your revisions are complete, submit the final version of your paper to the journal. Be sure to follow any additional formatting guidelines and requirements provided by the journal.
Publication : If your paper is accepted, it will be published in the journal. Some journals provide online publication while others may publish a print version. Be sure to cite your published paper in future research and communicate your findings to the scientific community.

How to Publish a Research Paper for Students

Here are some steps you can follow to publish a research paper as an Under Graduate or a High School Student:

Select a topic: Choose a topic that is relevant and interesting to you, and that you have a good understanding of.
Conduct research : Gather information and data on your chosen topic through research, experiments, surveys, or other means.
Write the paper : Start with an outline, then write the introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion sections of the paper. Be sure to follow any guidelines provided by your instructor or the journal you plan to submit to.
Edit and revise: Review your paper for errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Ask a peer or mentor to review your paper and provide feedback for improvement.
Choose a journal : Look for journals that publish papers in your field of study and that are appropriate for your level of research. Some popular journals for students include PLOS ONE, Nature, and Science.
Submit the paper: Follow the submission guidelines for the journal you choose, which typically include a cover letter, abstract, and formatting requirements. Be prepared to wait several weeks to months for a response.
Address feedback : If your paper is accepted with revisions, address the feedback from the reviewers and resubmit your paper. If your paper is rejected, review the feedback and consider revising and resubmitting to a different journal.

How to Publish a Research Paper for Free

Publishing a research paper for free can be challenging, but it is possible. Here are some steps you can take to publish your research paper for free:

Choose a suitable open-access journal: Look for open-access journals that are relevant to your research area. Open-access journals allow readers to access your paper without charge, so your work will be more widely available.
Check the journal’s reputation : Before submitting your paper, ensure that the journal is reputable by checking its impact factor, publication history, and editorial board.
Follow the submission guidelines : Every journal has specific guidelines for submitting papers. Make sure to follow these guidelines carefully to increase the chances of acceptance.
Submit your paper : Once you have completed your research paper, submit it to the journal following their submission guidelines.
Wait for the review process: Your paper will undergo a peer-review process, where experts in your field will evaluate your work. Be patient during this process, as it can take several weeks or even months.
Revise your paper : If your paper is rejected, don’t be discouraged. Revise your paper based on the feedback you receive from the reviewers and submit it to another open-access journal.
Promote your research: Once your paper is published, promote it on social media and other online platforms. This will increase the visibility of your work and help it reach a wider audience.

Journals and Conferences for Free Research Paper publications

Here are the websites of the open-access journals and conferences mentioned:

Open-Access Journals:

PLOS ONE – https://journals.plos.org/plosone/
BMC Research Notes – https://bmcresnotes.biomedcentral.com/
Frontiers in… – https://www.frontiersin.org/
Journal of Open Research Software – https://openresearchsoftware.metajnl.com/
PeerJ – https://peerj.com/

Conferences:

IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM) – https://globecom2022.ieee-globecom.org/
IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications (INFOCOM) – https://infocom2022.ieee-infocom.org/
IEEE International Conference on Data Mining (ICDM) – https://www.ieee-icdm.org/
ACM SIGCOMM Conference on Data Communication (SIGCOMM) – https://conferences.sigcomm.org/sigcomm/
ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS) – https://www.sigsac.org/ccs/CCS2022/

Importance of Research Paper Publication

Research paper publication is important for several reasons, both for individual researchers and for the scientific community as a whole. Here are some reasons why:

Advancing scientific knowledge : Research papers provide a platform for researchers to present their findings and contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. These papers often contain novel ideas, experimental data, and analyses that can help to advance scientific understanding.
Building a research career : Publishing research papers is an essential component of building a successful research career. Researchers are often evaluated based on the number and quality of their publications, and having a strong publication record can increase one’s chances of securing funding, tenure, or a promotion.
Peer review and quality control: Publication in a peer-reviewed journal means that the research has been scrutinized by other experts in the field. This peer review process helps to ensure the quality and validity of the research findings.
Recognition and visibility : Publishing a research paper can bring recognition and visibility to the researchers and their work. It can lead to invitations to speak at conferences, collaborations with other researchers, and media coverage.
Impact on society : Research papers can have a significant impact on society by informing policy decisions, guiding clinical practice, and advancing technological innovation.

Advantages of Research Paper Publication

There are several advantages to publishing a research paper, including:

Recognition: Publishing a research paper allows researchers to gain recognition for their work, both within their field and in the academic community as a whole. This can lead to new collaborations, invitations to conferences, and other opportunities to share their research with a wider audience.
Career advancement : A strong publication record can be an important factor in career advancement, particularly in academia. Publishing research papers can help researchers secure funding, grants, and promotions.
Dissemination of knowledge : Research papers are an important way to share new findings and ideas with the broader scientific community. By publishing their research, scientists can contribute to the collective body of knowledge in their field and help advance scientific understanding.
Feedback and peer review : Publishing a research paper allows other experts in the field to provide feedback on the research, which can help improve the quality of the work and identify potential flaws or limitations. Peer review also helps ensure that research is accurate and reliable.
Citation and impact : Published research papers can be cited by other researchers, which can help increase the impact and visibility of the research. High citation rates can also help establish a researcher’s reputation and credibility within their field.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Research Papers

How to Write and Publish Your Research in a Journal

Last Updated: May 26, 2024 Fact Checked

Choosing a Journal

Writing the research paper, editing & revising your paper, submitting your paper, navigating the peer review process, research paper help.

This article was co-authored by Matthew Snipp, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Cheyenne Main . C. Matthew Snipp is the Burnet C. and Mildred Finley Wohlford Professor of Humanities and Sciences in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University. He is also the Director for the Institute for Research in the Social Science’s Secure Data Center. He has been a Research Fellow at the U.S. Bureau of the Census and a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has published 3 books and over 70 articles and book chapters on demography, economic development, poverty and unemployment. He is also currently serving on the National Institute of Child Health and Development’s Population Science Subcommittee. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. There are 13 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 707,241 times.

Publishing a research paper in a peer-reviewed journal allows you to network with other scholars, get your name and work into circulation, and further refine your ideas and research. Before submitting your paper, make sure it reflects all the work you’ve done and have several people read over it and make comments. Keep reading to learn how you can choose a journal, prepare your work for publication, submit it, and revise it after you get a response back.

Things You Should Know

Create a list of journals you’d like to publish your work in and choose one that best aligns with your topic and your desired audience.
Prepare your manuscript using the journal’s requirements and ask at least 2 professors or supervisors to review your paper.
Write a cover letter that “sells” your manuscript, says how your research adds to your field and explains why you chose the specific journal you’re submitting to.

Step 1 Create a list of journals you’d like to publish your work in.

Ask your professors or supervisors for well-respected journals that they’ve had good experiences publishing with and that they read regularly.
Many journals also only accept specific formats, so by choosing a journal before you start, you can write your article to their specifications and increase your chances of being accepted.
If you’ve already written a paper you’d like to publish, consider whether your research directly relates to a hot topic or area of research in the journals you’re looking into.

Step 2 Look at each journal’s audience, exposure, policies, and procedures.

Review the journal’s peer review policies and submission process to see if you’re comfortable creating or adjusting your work according to their standards.
Open-access journals can increase your readership because anyone can access them.

Step 1 Craft an effective introduction with a thesis statement.

Scientific research papers: Instead of a “thesis,” you might write a “research objective” instead. This is where you state the purpose of your research.
“This paper explores how George Washington’s experiences as a young officer may have shaped his views during difficult circumstances as a commanding officer.”
“This paper contends that George Washington’s experiences as a young officer on the 1750s Pennsylvania frontier directly impacted his relationship with his Continental Army troops during the harsh winter at Valley Forge.”

Step 2 Write the literature review and the body of your paper.

Scientific research papers: Include a “materials and methods” section with the step-by-step process you followed and the materials you used. [5] X Research source
Read other research papers in your field to see how they’re written. Their format, writing style, subject matter, and vocabulary can help guide your own paper. [6] X Research source

Step 3 Write your conclusion that ties back to your thesis or research objective.

If you’re writing about George Washington’s experiences as a young officer, you might emphasize how this research changes our perspective of the first president of the U.S.
Link this section to your thesis or research objective.
If you’re writing a paper about ADHD, you might discuss other applications for your research.

Step 4 Write an abstract that describes what your paper is about.

Scientific research papers: You might include your research and/or analytical methods, your main findings or results, and the significance or implications of your research.
Try to get as many people as you can to read over your abstract and provide feedback before you submit your paper to a journal.

Step 1 Prepare your manuscript according to the journal’s requirements.

They might also provide templates to help you structure your manuscript according to their specific guidelines. [11] X Research source

Step 2 Ask 2 colleagues to review your paper and revise it with their notes.

Not all journal reviewers will be experts on your specific topic, so a non-expert “outsider’s perspective” can be valuable.

Step 1 Check your sources for plagiarism and identify 5 to 6 keywords.

If you have a paper on the purification of wastewater with fungi, you might use both the words “fungi” and “mushrooms.”
Use software like iThenticate, Turnitin, or PlagScan to check for similarities between the submitted article and published material available online. [15] X Research source

Step 2 Write a cover letter explaining why you chose their journal.

Header: Address the editor who will be reviewing your manuscript by their name, include the date of submission, and the journal you are submitting to.
First paragraph: Include the title of your manuscript, the type of paper it is (like review, research, or case study), and the research question you wanted to answer and why.
Second paragraph: Explain what was done in your research, your main findings, and why they are significant to your field.
Third paragraph: Explain why the journal’s readers would be interested in your work and why your results are important to your field.
Conclusion: State the author(s) and any journal requirements that your work complies with (like ethical standards”).
“We confirm that this manuscript has not been published elsewhere and is not under consideration by another journal.”
“All authors have approved the manuscript and agree with its submission to [insert the name of the target journal].”

Step 3 Submit your article according to the journal’s submission guidelines.

Submit your article to only one journal at a time.
When submitting online, use your university email account. This connects you with a scholarly institution, which can add credibility to your work.

Step 1 Try not to panic when you get the journal’s initial response.

Accept: Only minor adjustments are needed, based on the provided feedback by the reviewers. A first submission will rarely be accepted without any changes needed.
Revise and Resubmit: Changes are needed before publication can be considered, but the journal is still very interested in your work.
Reject and Resubmit: Extensive revisions are needed. Your work may not be acceptable for this journal, but they might also accept it if significant changes are made.
Reject: The paper isn’t and won’t be suitable for this publication, but that doesn’t mean it might not work for another journal.

Step 2 Revise your paper based on the reviewers’ feedback.

Try organizing the reviewer comments by how easy it is to address them. That way, you can break your revisions down into more manageable parts.
If you disagree with a comment made by a reviewer, try to provide an evidence-based explanation when you resubmit your paper.

Step 3 Resubmit to the same journal or choose another from your list.

If you’re resubmitting your paper to the same journal, include a point-by-point response paper that talks about how you addressed all of the reviewers’ comments in your revision. [22] X Research source
If you’re not sure which journal to submit to next, you might be able to ask the journal editor which publications they recommend.

Expert Q&A

About This Article

To publish a research paper, ask a colleague or professor to review your paper and give you feedback. Once you've revised your work, familiarize yourself with different academic journals so that you can choose the publication that best suits your paper. Make sure to look at the "Author's Guide" so you can format your paper according to the guidelines for that publication. Then, submit your paper and don't get discouraged if it is not accepted right away. You may need to revise your paper and try again. To learn about the different responses you might get from journals, see our reviewer's explanation below. Did this summary help you? Yes No

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The 5 Best Platforms to Publish Your Academic Research

Academic research is a central component of scientific advancements and breakthrough innovations. However, your research journey is complex and ever-changing. You must take into consideration funding options, how to securely store your information, choosing where to publish your research, finding manuscript peer reviewers, and many more.

To keep up with the change, you and other researchers require modern, easy-to-navigate research platforms to help you uncover, store, verify, compile, and share content, data, and important insights to continue to carry out breakthrough research.

This article explains how to identify the best platforms for publishing your research and gives you a list of five platforms to help you publish. Towards the end, you’ll also see a mention of how Orvium can further assist you with publishing.

How to Identify the Best Platforms for Publishing

When trying to identify the best platforms for publishing your research, you have to consider several factors, including:

Does the platform support your research journey ? Can you collaborate with other authors and researchers, discover public groups and research papers and manuscripts (including Open Access work), view interactive graphs, images, tables, etc., track citations, and build a professional research profile?
Is the platform easy to use ? Does it offer rich functionalities that are easy to understand, and if so, which ones?
Does it use artificial intelligence and machine learning ? Automated actions (email alerts, etc.) can help you unlock breakthroughs faster and deliver deeper insights.
What security and governance does it have ? Platforms must be secure and compliant according to local regulations since researchers often deal with sensitive data.

The 5 Best Platforms to Publish Academic Research

Researchgate.

ResearchGate is a platform hosting over 135 million publication pages with a community of 20 million scientists. The platform allows you to show off your work, access papers and advice from other researchers, make contacts and even find jobs. Some of its more prominent features include:

Dedicated Q&A section with searchable keywords to target experts in your particular field or area of study
Ability to create a personal profile page where you can display all research-specific details about yourself, including up to five pieces of work (including datasets and conference papers)
In-depth stats on who reads your work and the ability to track your citations
A private messaging service that allows you to send messages to other researchers
A comments section to provide feedback when viewing a paper
A “projects” section to tell others about your upcoming work.

In addition, it's completely free to use!

Academia is a research-sharing platform with over 178 million users, 29 million papers uploaded, and 87 million visitors per month. Their goal is to accelerate research in all fields, ensure that all research is available for free and that the sharing of knowledge is available in multiple formats (videos, datasets, code, short-form content, etc.). Some of their more prominent features include:

Mentions and search alerts that notify you when another researcher cites, thanks, or acknowledges your work, and automatic reports of search queries
Ability to create a personal profile page
“Profile visitor” and “readers” features let you know the title and location of those who visit your profile or read your papers so you can learn about their research interests and get in touch
A “grants” feature to allow you to find new grants and fellowships in your field
Advanced research discovery tools allow you to see full texts and citations of millions of papers.

The platform is based on a “freemium” business model, which provides free access to research for everyone, and paid capabilities to subscribers.

ScienceOpen

ScienceOpen is a discovery platform that empowers researchers to make an impact in their communities. The platform is committed to Open Science, combining decades of experience in traditional publishing, computing, and academic research to provide free access to knowledge to drive creativity, innovation, and development. Some of their more prominent features include:

You can publish your most recent paper as a preprint that’s citable and includes a DOI to share with peers immediately and enhance visibility
A multidimensional search feature for articles with 18 filters and the ability to sort results by Altmetric scores , citations, date, and rating
Ability to create a personal profile with minimal upkeep necessary
Access to a suite of metrics (usage, citations, etc.) of your publications
Ability to follow other researchers to stay up-to-date on their work and expand your network.

The platform is free to use, although some features (like publishing your preprint) may cost money.

IOPscience is a platform that embraces innovative technologies to make it easier for researchers to discover and access technical, scientific, and medical content while managing their own research content. They participate in several programs that offer researchers in developing countries several ways to gain access to journals at little or no cost. Some of their other features include:

An enhanced search filtering feature allows you to find relevant research faster
A social bookmarking feature allows you to interact with other researchers and share articles
Ability to create a personal profile, customize your alerts, view recently published articles within your field or area of interest, and save relevant papers or articles
Ability to receive email alerts and RSS feeds once new content is published.

IOPscience is free to use and functions on an Open Access policy, which you can check here .

Orvium is an open, community-based research platform that allows researchers, reviewers, and publishers to share, publish, review, and manage their research. Orvium protects your work with built-in blockchain integration to ensure that you maintain the copyright of your work and not only. Some of our more notable features include:

Access to a modern web platform with Google indexing, notifications, and mobile-ready features
Ability to manage your entire publication process, with control over when you submit, receive peer reviews, and publish your paper
“Collaboration” and “full traceability” features allow you to track your profile impact, get in touch with other researchers, and have ownership over your work
Recognition badges or economic rewards are given when you peer-review.

Orvium is completely free to use.

Orvium Makes Choosing a Platform Easy

No matter what platform or community you choose to be a part of, you now know what you need to look for when choosing one. You also learned about five excellent platforms where you can publish your academic research. Orvium will remain your one-stop-shop platform for all your research needs. Do you want to know how Orvium and our communities work? Check out our platform or contact us with any questions you may have.

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How to publish your research

A step-by-step guide to getting published.

Publishing your research is an important step in your academic career. While there isn’t a one-size-fits-all approach, this guide is designed to take you through the typical steps in publishing a research paper.

Discover how to get your paper published, from choosing the right journal and understanding what a peer reviewed article is, to responding to reviewers and navigating the production process.

Step 1: Choosing a journal

Vector illustration depicting two characters choosing a journal from a screen which is in the middle of them.

Choosing which journal to publish your research paper in is one of the most significant decisions you have to make as a researcher. Where you decide to submit your work can make a big difference to the reach and impact your research has.

It’s important to take your time to consider your options carefully and analyze each aspect of journal submission – from shortlisting titles to your preferred method of publication, for example open access .

Don’t forget to think about publishing options beyond the traditional journals format – for example, open research platform F1000Research , which offers rapid, open publication for a wide range of outputs.

Why choose your target journal before you start writing?

The first step in publishing a research paper should always be selecting the journal you want to publish in. Choosing your target journal before you start writing means you can tailor your work to build on research that’s already been published in that journal. This can help editors to see how a paper adds to the ‘conversation’ in their journal.

In addition, many journals only accept specific manuscript formats of article. So, by choosing a journal before you start, you can write your article to their specifications and audience, and ultimately improve your chances of acceptance.

To save time and for peace of mind, you can consider using manuscript formatting experts while you focus on your research.

How to select the journal to publish your research in

Choosing which journal to publish your research in can seem like an overwhelming task. So, for all the details of how to navigate this important step in publishing your research paper, take a look at our choosing a journal guide . This will take you through the selection process, from understanding the aims and scope of the journals you’re interested in to making sure you choose a trustworthy journal.

Don’t forget to explore our Journal Suggester to see which Taylor & Francis journals could be right for your research.

Go to guidance on choosing a journal

Step 2: Writing your paper

Writing an effective, compelling research paper is vital to getting your research published. But if you’re new to putting together academic papers, it can feel daunting to start from scratch.

The good news is that if you’ve chosen the journal you want to publish in, you’ll have lots of examples already published in that journal to base your own paper on. We’ve gathered advice on every aspect of writing your paper, to make sure you get off to a great start.

How to write your paper

How you write your paper will depend on your chosen journal, your subject area, and the type of paper you’re writing. Everything from the style and structure you choose to the audience you should have in mind while writing will differ, so it’s important to think about these things before you get stuck in.

Our writing your paper guidance will take you through everything you need to know to put together your research article and prepare it for submission. This includes getting to know your target journal, understanding your audiences, and how to choose appropriate keywords.

You can also use this guide to take you through your research publication journey .

You should also make sure you’re aware of all the Editorial Policies for the journal you plan to submit to. Don’t forget that you can contact our editing services to help you refine your manuscript.

Discover advice and guidance for writing your paper

Step 3: Making your submission

Once you’ve chosen the right journal and written your manuscript, the next step in publishing your research paper is to make your submission .

Each journal will have specific submission requirements, so make sure you visit Taylor & Francis Online and carefully check through the instructions for authors for your chosen journal.

How to submit your manuscript

To submit your manuscript you’ll need to ensure that you’ve gone through all the steps in our making your submission guide. This includes thoroughly understanding your chosen journal’s instructions for authors, writing an effective cover letter, navigating the journal’s submission system, and making sure your research data is prepared as required.

You can also improve your submission experience with our guide to avoid obstacles and complete a seamless submission.

To make sure you’ve covered everything before you hit ‘submit’ you can also take a look at our ‘ready to submit’ checklist (don’t forget, you should only submit to one journal at a time).

Understand the process of making your submission

Step 4: Navigating the peer review process

Now you’ve submitted your manuscript, you need to get to grips with one of the most important parts of publishing your research paper – the peer review process .

What is peer review?

Peer review is the independent assessment of your research article by independent experts in your field. Reviewers, also sometimes called ‘referees’, are asked to judge the validity, significance, and originality of your work.

This process ensures that a peer-reviewed article has been through a rigorous process to make sure the methodology is sound, the work can be replicated, and it fits with the aims and scope of the journal that is considering it for publication. It acts as an important form of quality control for research papers.

Peer review is also a very useful source of feedback, helping you to improve your paper before it’s published. It is intended to be a collaborative process, where authors engage in a dialogue with their peers and receive constructive feedback and support to advance their work.

Almost all research articles go through peer review, although in some cases the journal may operate post-publication peer review, which means that reviews and reader comments are invited after the paper is published.

If you’ll like to feel more confident before getting your work peer reviewed by the journal, you may want to consider using an in-depth technical review service from experts.

Understanding peer review

Peer review can be a complex process to get your head around. That’s why we’ve put together a comprehensive guide to understanding peer review . This explains everything from the many different types of peer review to the step-by-step peer review process and how to revise your manuscript. It also has helpful advice on what to do if your manuscript is rejected.

Visit our peer review guide for authors

Step 5: The production process

If your paper is accepted for publication, it will then head into production . At this stage of the process, the paper will be prepared for publishing in your chosen journal.

A lot of the work to produce the final version of your paper will be done by the journal production team, but your input will be required at various stages of the process.

What do you need to do during production?

During production, you’ll have a variety of tasks to complete and decisions to make. For example, you’ll need to check and correct proofs of your article and consider whether or not you want to produce a video abstract to accompany it.

Take a look at our guide to the production process to find out what you’ll need to do in this final step to getting your research published.

Your research is published – now what?

You’ve successfully navigated publishing a research paper – congratulations! But the process doesn’t stop there. Now your research is published in a journal for the world to see, you’ll need to know how to access your article and make sure it has an impact .

Here’s a quick tip on how to boost your research impact by investing in making your accomplishments stand out.

Below you’ll find helpful tips and post-publication support. From how to communicate about your research to how to request corrections or translations.

How to access your published article

When you publish with Taylor & Francis, you’ll have access to a new section on Taylor & Francis Online called Authored Works . This will give you and all other named authors perpetual access to your article, regardless of whether or not you have a subscription to the journal you have published in.

You can also order print copies of your article .

How to make sure your research has an impact

Taking the time to make sure your research has an impact can help drive your career progression, build your networks, and secure funding for new research. So, it’s worth investing in.

Creating a real impact with your work can be a challenging and time-consuming task, which can feel difficult to fit into an already demanding academic career.

To help you understand what impact means for you and your work, take a look at our guide to research impact . It covers why impact is important, the different types of impact you can have, how to achieve impact – including tips on communicating with a variety of audiences – and how to measure your success.

Keeping track of your article’s progress

Through your Authored Works access , you’ll be able to get real-time insights about your article, such as views, downloads and citation numbers.

In addition, when you publish an article with us, you’ll be offered the option to sign up for email updates. These emails will be sent to you three, six and twelve months after your article is published to let you know how many views and citations the article has had.

Corrections and translations of published articles

Sometimes after an article has been published it may be necessary to make a change to the Version of Record . Take a look at our dedicated guide to corrections, expressions of concern, retractions and removals to find out more.

You may also be interested in translating your article into another language. If that’s the case, take a look at our information on article translations .

Go to your guide on moving through production

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Scholarly Communications - MIT Libraries

Independent book publishing

What is independent publishing?

Independent or self-publishing means the author handles the many jobs of a traditional publisher — such as editing, designing, promoting, distributing the book — or contracts them out to one or more company.

The number of independently published titles grew by 422% between 2007 and 2012. A large part of that growth is because it’s quite easy to publish a monograph, compilation of lecture notes, book of essays, textbook, or novel; there are now dozens of companies that will help you sell to a potentially large audience or simply print a copy of your book.

Why publish independently?

Your book may not sell to a traditional publisher.
You want to hold onto your rights.
You want to handle the design.
You want to set the book’s price.
Your book is for a small audience/you don’t want to sell it.

Things to consider when choosing a publisher

Start with some questions:

Who is the book for? Yourself, friends and family, colleagues, students, or a wider audience?
Do you hope to make money from sales?
Do you want to print one book or 1,000, or do you want an e-book only?
Does your book have a lot of graphics, photos, or complex technical charts?
Is your book already finished, or do you need help getting there?

The answers may help you determine which services are most important to you: editing, design, higher royalties, affordable printing on demand, marketing, etc. Some companies offer multiple services; others specialize in one or a few. Some publish e-books only; many do print as well.

Royalties can be particularly complex, and companies aren’t always straightforward about how they determine what you make. For an in-depth look at how various companies calculate royalties, one resource is Mark Levine’s The Fine Print of Self-Publishing , which offers a qualitative evaluation and ranking of many of the top companies in terms of printing markups, royalties, author-friendliness of contracts, customer service, and total cost of publishing.

An important issue to keep in mind with any company is whether the terms of the author contract are acceptable to you. This is also a complex area. Levine provides suggestions in The Fine Print of Self-Publishing and on his website. The department of Scholarly Communications and Collections Strategy can also assist you with the process.

Sample of independent publishers & what they do

Below is an overview of the services offered by a small sampling of publishing companies, including some of the most popular ones used by independent authors today. (Note that these companies are more like content managers and printers than traditional publishers in the sense that they don’t discriminate about genre or quality. You pay, you publish.)

We describe the kinds of projects a company is known for, where your costs lie, and anything else of note. Unless otherwise noted, the companies below will register your books and e-books with online retailers (like Amazon, Apple, Barnes & Noble, and Borders) and international distributers (like Baker & Taylor, Ingram, and the Books-In-Print database). They may do this for free or as part of publishing packages, though your book must meet some requirements. See, for example, those of Lulu and Createspace .

This guide doesn’t address open access publishing, which can overlap with independent publishing but often doesn’t. Many traditional presses offer open access publishing, and there are also open-access-only publishers. Here is a list of publishers of OA books .

Createspace (Amazon)

Publish green.

Should You Self-Publish Your Research?

In 1901, Beatrix Potter’s “The Tales of Peter Rabbit” was rejected by several publishers, so she self-published the book. Less than a year later, publisher Frederick Warne & Co., one of the original group of publishers who rejected her manuscript , became Beatrix Potter’s publisher. The relationship lasted for 40 years and led to the publication of over 23 books. Over a century later, over two million books, which have been authored by Beatrix Potter, are sold each year!

Most of us still think of self-publishing as a relatively new phenomenon linked to the technological advances in digital publishing. However, importantly, the “self” aspect actually refers to breaking away from traditional publishing houses.

Traditional Publishers

Academic interest in self-publishing shares the same frustrations with the stranglehold that publishing houses have on getting your books or research papers to a broader market. Open access has started to decrease this hold. However, while earnest researchers may complain about the sclerotic pace of academic research and argue in favor of the fastest way to get their results out there, the aura of prestige that traditional journals still exude continues to caste such a large shadow that many dismiss self-published academic material as only for those who were unsuccessful in getting their work published anywhere else.

When Self-publishing Becomes a Last Resort

The integrity of academic research rests on objective third-party reviews. The increasing number of journal retractions may be bringing that integrity into question, but for now, once you step out of that traditional publishing cycle, you open your work to extra scrutiny because of the lack of peer review.

If you think that your material may be too controversial for traditional journal content, or that the six-month to two-year time frame will be too slow for your research to be available to the wide community, self-publishing is probably your last resort.

Freedom of Publishing!

The primary attraction of self-publishing is the freedom to have your voice heard outside the constraints of publishing houses. Many researchers already publish blogs, and a few of them have compiled those posts into e-books. They get to engage with their audience as they share their thoughts, opinions, and updates on the work they do every day. The ability to control what they say and what information they share with their followers (institutional rules and protocols notwithstanding) is very attractive when compared to the supplication of your work to publishers who will dictate what they will accept for publication and when.

One promising area for self-publishing academic work could be replication studies. As journals continue to favor new and controversial research papers and demonstrate considerable reticence in responding to replication studies that bring original papers into question, researchers now have an avenue to bring their concerns to a broader audience. The persistence of papers that remain unretracted in the face of strong concerns about the integrity of their results has begun to raise broader questions about the effectiveness of the peer review process as well as fueling the growth of the open access model. Allowing experienced researchers to bring their concerns to an educated audience as soon as their studies have been completed rather than waiting for their papers to be rejected after six months or more by traditional journals may well prove to be one of the most disruptive events in academic publishing .

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Where to Publish a Research Paper In High School: 18 Journals and Conferences to Consider

By Alex Yang

Graduate student at Southern Methodist University

9 minute read

So you've been working super hard writing a research paper , and you’ve finally finished. Congrats! It’s a very impressive accolade already, but you might still be wondering how to publish a research paper for students. As we’ve talked about before in our Polygence blog, “ Showcasing your work and sharing it with the world is the intellectual version of ‘pics or it didn’t happen.’ ” Of course, there are lot of different ways to showcase your work , from creating a YouTube video to making a podcast. But one of the most popular ways to showcase your research is to publish your research. Publishing your research can take the great work you’ve already done and add credibility to it, and will make a stronger impression than unpublished research. Further, the process of having your work reviewed by advanced degree researchers can be a valuable experience in itself. You can receive feedback from experts and learn how to improve upon the work you’ve already done.

Before we dive into the various reputable journals and conferences to publish your work, let’s distinguish between the various academic publishing options that you have as a high school student, as there are some nuances. Quick disclaimer: this article focuses on journals and conferences as ways to showcase your work. There are also competitions where you can submit your work, and we have written guides on competing in premier competitions like Regeneron STS and competing in Regeneron ISEF .

Publishing Options for High School Students

Peer-reviewed journals.

This is rather self-explanatory, but these journals go through the peer review process, where author(s) submit their work to the journal, and the journal's editors send the work to a group of independent experts (typically grad students or other scientists with advanced degrees) in the same field or discipline. These experts are peer reviewers, who evaluate the work based on a set of predetermined criteria, including the quality of the research, the validity of the methodology, the accuracy of the data, and the originality of the findings. The peer reviewers may suggest revisions or leave comments, but ultimately the editors will decide which suggestions to give to the student.

Once you’ve received suggestions, you have the opportunity to make revisions before submitting your final product back to the journal. The editor then decides whether or not your work is published.

Non-Peer-Reviewed Journals

These are just journals that do not undergo a review process. In general, peer-reviewed journals may be seen as more credible and prestigious. However, non-peer-reviewed journals may make it easier and faster to publish your work, which can be helpful if you are pressed for time and applying to colleges soon .

Pre Print Archives

Preprint archives or servers are online repositories where student researchers can upload and share their research papers without undergoing any review process. Preprints allow students to share their findings quickly and get feedback from the scientific community, which can help improve the research while you’re waiting to hear back from journals, which typically have longer timelines and can take up to several months to publish research. Sharing your work in a preprint archive does not prohibit you from, or interfere with submitting the same work to a journal afterwards.

Research Conferences

Prefer to present your research in a presentation or verbal format? Conferences can be a great way to “publish” your research, showcase your public speaking skills, speak directly to your audience, and network with other researchers in your field.

Student-led Journals vs Graduate Student / Professor-led Journals

Some student-led journals may have peer-review, but the actual people peer-reviewing your work may be high school students. Other journals will have graduate students, PhD students, or even faculty reviewing your work. As you can imagine, there are tradeoffs to either option. With an advanced degree student reviewing your work, you can likely expect better and more accurate feedback. Plus, it’s cool to have an expert look over your work! However, this may also mean that the journal is more selective, whereas student-led journals may be easier to publish in. Nonetheless, getting feedback from anyone who’s knowledgeable can be a great way to polish your research and writing.

Strategy for Submitting to Multiple Journals

Ultimately, your paper can only be published in one peer-reviewed journal. Submitting the same paper to multiple peer-reviewed journals at the same time is not allowed, and doing so may impact its publication at any peer-reviewed journal. If your work is not accepted at one journal, however, then you are free to submit that work to your next choice and so on. Therefore, it is best to submit to journals with a strategy in mind. Consider: what journal do I ideally want to be published in? What are some back-ups if I don’t get published in my ideal journal? Preprints, like arXiv and the Research Archive of Rising Scholars, are possible places to submit your work in advance of seeking peer-reviewed publication. These are places to “stake your claim” in a research area and get feedback from the community prior to submitting your paper to its final home in a peer-reviewed journal. You can submit your work to a preprint prior to submitting at a peer-reviewed journal. However, bioRxiv, a reputable preprint server, recommends on their website that a preprint only be posted on one server, so that’s something to keep in mind as well.

Citation and Paper Formats

All of the journals listed below have specific ways that they’d like you to cite your sources, varying from styles like MLA to APA, and it’s important that you double-check the journal’s requirements for citations, titling your paper, writing your abstract, etc. Most journal websites have very detailed guides for how they want you to format your paper, so follow those closely to avoid having to wait to hear back and then resubmit your paper. If you’re looking for more guidance on citations and bibliographies check out our blog post!

18 Journals and Conferences to Publish Your Research as a High Schooler

Now that we’ve distinguished the differences between certain journals and conferences, let’s jump into some of our favorite ones. We’ve divided up our selections based on prestige and reliability, and we’ve made these selections using our experience with helping Polygence students showcase their research .

Most Prestigious Journals

Concord review.

Cost: $70 to Submit and $200 Publication Cost (if accepted)

Deadline: Fixed Deadlines in Feb 1 (Summer Issue), May 1 (Fall), August 1 (Winter), and November 1 (Spring)

Subject area: History / Social Sciences

Type of research: All types of academic articles

The Concord Review is a quarterly journal that publishes exceptional essays written by high school students on historical topics. The journal has been around since 1987 and has a great reputation, with many student winners going to great universities. Further, if your paper is published, your essays will be sent to subscribers and teachers all around the world, which is an incredible achievement.

Papers submitted tend to be around 8,000 words, so there is definitely a lot of writing involved, and the Concord Review themselves say that they are very selective, publishing only about 5% of the essays they receive.

We’ve posted our complete guide on publishing in the Concord Review here.

Journal of Emerging Investigators (JEI)

Deadline: Rolling

Subject area: STEM

Type of research: Original hypothesis-driven scientific research

JEI is an open-access publication that features scientific research papers written by middle and high school students in the fields of biological and physical sciences. The journal includes a comprehensive peer-review process, where graduate students and other professional scientists with advanced degrees will review the manuscripts and provide suggestions to improve both the project and manuscript itself. You can expect to receive feedback in 6-8 weeks.

This should be the go-to option for students that are doing hypothesis-driven, original research or research that involves original analyses of existing data (meta-analysis, analyzing publicly available datasets, etc.). This is not an appropriate fit for students writing literature reviews. Finally, a mentor or parent must submit on behalf of the student.

We’ve had many Polygence students successfully submit to JEI. Check out Hana’s research on invasive species and their effects in drought times.

STEM Fellowship Journal (SFJ)

Cost: $400 publication fee

Subject area: All Scientific Disciplines

Type of research: Conference Proceedings, Review Articles, Viewpoint Articles, Original Research

SFJ is a peer-reviewed journal published by Canadian Science Publishing that serves as a platform for scholarly research conducted by high school and university students in the STEM fields. Peer review is conducted by undergraduate, graduate student, and professional reviewers.

Depending on the kind of research article you choose to submit, SFJ provides very specific guidelines on what to include and word limits.

Other Great Journal Options

National high school journal of science (nhsjs).

Cost: $250 for publication

Deadline: Rolling

Subject area: All science disciplines

Type of research: Original research, literature review

NHSJS is a journal peer reviewed by high schoolers from around the world, with an advisory board of adult academics. Topics are STEM related, and submission types can vary from original research papers to shorter articles.

Curieux Academic Journal

Cost: $185-215

Subject area: Engineering, Humanities, and Natural Science, Mathematics, and Social Science

Type of research: Including but not limited to research papers, review articles, and humanity/social science pieces.

Curieux Academic Journal is a non-profit run by students and was founded in 2017 to publish outstanding research by high school and middle school students. Curieux publishes one issue per month (twelve per year), so there are many opportunities to get your research published.

The Young Scientists Journal

Deadline: December

Subject area: Sciences

Type of research: Original research, literature review, blog post

The Young Scientists Journal , while a popular option for students previously, has paused submissions to process a backlog. The journal is an international peer-reviewed journal run by students, and creates print issues twice a year.

The journal has also been around for a decade and has a clear track record of producing alumni who go on to work in STEM.

Here’s an example of research submitted by Polygence student Ryan to the journal.

Journal of Research High School (JRHS)

Subject area: Any academic subject including the sciences and humanities

Type of research: Original research and significant literature reviews.

JRHS is an online research journal edited by volunteer professional scientists, researchers, teachers, and professors. JRHS accepts original research and significant literature reviews in Engineering, Humanities, Natural Science, Math, and Social Sciences.

From our experience working with our students to help publish their research, this journal is currently operating with a 15-20 week turnaround time for review. This is a bit on the longer side, so be mindful of this turnaround time if you’re looking to get your work published soon.

Youth Medical Journal

Deadline: March (currently closed)

Subject area: Medical or scientific topics

Type of research: Original research, review article, blog post, magazine article

The Youth Medical Journal is an international, student-run team of 40 students looking to share medical research.

We’ve found that this journal is a good entry point for students new to research papers, but when submissions are busy, in the past they have paused submissions.

Journal of High School Science (JHSS)

Subject area: All topics

Type of research: Original research, literature review, technical notes, opinion pieces

This peer-reviewed STEAM journal publishes quarterly, with advanced degree doctors who sit on the journal’s editorial board. In addition to typical STEM subjects, the journal also accepts manuscripts related to music and theater, which is explicitly stated on their website.

Due to the current large volume of submissions, the review process takes a minimum of 4 weeks from the time of submission.

Whitman Journal of Psychology

Subject area: Psychology

Type of research: Original research, podcasts

The WWJOP is a publication run entirely by students, where research and literature reviews in the field of psychology are recognized. The journal is run out of a high school with a teacher supervisor and student staff.

The WWJOP uniquely also accepts podcast submissions, so if that’s your preferred format for showcasing your work, then this could be the journal for you!

Cost: $180 submission fee

Subject area: Humanities

Type of research: Essay submission

The Schola is a peer-reviewed quarterly journal that showcases essays on various humanities and social sciences topics authored by high school students worldwide. They feature a diverse range of subjects such as philosophy, history, art history, English, economics, public policy, and sociology.

Editors at Schola are academics who teach and do research in the humanities and social sciences

Critical Debates in Humanities, Science and Global Justice

Cost: $10 author fee

Subject area: Ethics and frontiers of science, Biology and ecosystems, Technology and Innovation, Medical research and disease, Peace and civil society, Global citizenship, identity and democracy, Structural violence and society, Psychology, Education, AI, Sociology, Computer Science, Neuroscience, Cultural politics, Politics and Justice, Computer science and math as related to policy, Public policy, Human rights, Language, Identity and Culture, Art and activism

Critical Debates is an international academic journal for critical discourse in humanities, science and contemporary global issues for emerging young scholars

International Youth Neuroscience Association Journal

Subject area: Neuroscience

Type of research: Research papers

Although this student peer-reviewed journal is not currently accepting submissions, we’ve had students recently publish here.

Here’s an example of Nevenka’s research that was published in the November 2022 issue of the journal.

Preprint Archives to Share Your Work In

Subject area: STEM, Quantitative Finance, Economics

arXiv is an open access archive supported by Cornell University, where more than 2 million scholarly articles in a wide variety of topics have been compiled. arXiv articles are not peer-reviewed, so you will not receive any feedback on your work from experts. However, your article does go through a moderation process where your work is classified into a topic area and checked for scholarly value. This process is rather quick however and according to arXiv you can expect your article to be available on the website in about 6 hours.

Although there’s no peer review process, that means the submission standards are not as rigorous and you can get your article posted very quickly, so submitting to arXiv or other preprint archives can be something you do before trying to get published in a journal.

One slight inconvenience of submitting to arXiv is that you must be endorsed by a current arXiv author, which can typically be a mentor or teacher or professor that you have. Here’s an example of a Polygence student submitting their work to arXiv, with Albert’s research on Hamiltonian Cycles.

Subject area: Biology

Type of research: Original research

bioRxiv is a preprint server for biology research, where again the research is not peer-reviewed but undergoes a check to make sure that the material is relevant and appropriate.

bioRxiv has a bit of a longer posting time, taking around 48 hours, but that’s still very quick. bioRxiv also allows for you to submit revised versions of your research if you decide to make changes.

Research Archive of Rising Scholars (RARS)

Subject area: STEM and Humanities

Type of research: Original research, review articles, poems, short stories, scripts

Research Archive of Rising Scholars is Polygence’s own preprint server! We were inspired by arXiv so we created a repository for articles and other creative submissions in STEM and the Humanities.

We launched RARS in 2022 and we’re excited to offer a space for budding scholars as they look to publish their work in journals. Compared to other preprint archives, RARS also accepts a wider range of submission types, including poems, short stories, and scripts.

Conferences to Participate In

Symposium of rising scholars.

Deadline: Twice a year - February and July

Polygence’s very own Symposium of Rising Scholars is a bi-annual academic conference where students present and share their research with their peers and experts. The Symposium also includes a College Admissions Panel and Keynote Speech. In our 8th edition of the Symposium this past March, we had 60 students presenting live, approximately 70 students presenting asynchronously, and over 100 audience members. The keynote speaker was Chang-rae Lee, award-winning novelist and professor at Stanford University.

We’re looking to have our 9th Symposium in Fall of 2023, and you can express your interest now. If you’re interested to see what our Polygence scholars have presented in the past for the Symposium, you can check out their scholar pages here.

Junior Science and Humanities Symposium (JSHS)

Deadline: Typically in November, so for 2024’s competition look to submit in Fall 2023

Subject area: STEM topics

JSHS is a Department of Defense sponsored program and competition that consists of first submitting a written report of your research. If your submission is selected, you’ll be able to participate in the regional symposium, where you can present in oral format or poster format. A select group from the regional symposium will then qualify for the national symposium.

One of the great things about JSHS compared to the journals mentioned above is that you’re allowed to work in teams and you don’t have to be a solo author. This can make the experience more fun for you and your teammates, and allow you to combine your strengths for your submission.

For young writers undertaking a high school research project and understanding how to publish a research paper for students is crucial. Knowing how to identify the right research question and understanding where to publish your research paper are key steps in this journey.

Want to start a project of your own?

Click below to get matched with one of our expert mentors who can help take your project off the ground!

Publishing in a scholarly journal: Part one, the publishing process

As a psychology student or early career psychologist, you might be thinking about publishing your first paper in a scholarly journal. There are several important steps and points to consider as you embark on your publishing journey. Not sure where to start? We’ve got you covered!

Recognizing that not all young academics get all of their questions about publication answered in their respective training programs, we crowdsourced from trainees and early career psychologists using an anonymous Twitter poll and direct solicitation from various students and colleagues known to the authors, this three-part article series includes frequently asked questions about the publication process with answers from the Editor-in-Chief of Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology ( ECP ), William Stoops, the Associate Editor of ECP , Raina Pang, and a past ECP Editorial Fellow, Daniel Bradford. Part one focuses on crucial publishing insights for future authors; part two examines the role of the editorial board; and part three sheds light on peer review.

Choosing a journal

How does one choose a journal in which to publish and what factors (impact factor, journal content) should be considered?

In general, the most important factor to consider when choosing where to submit your article is the fit of the manuscript to the scope and profile of the journal; Aside from the quality of the science and writing, this is the largest factor that will determine whether a manuscript is accepted to a journal. To determine fit, one should examine the journal description, usually found on the journal website.

Additionally, it is helpful to browse the journal to see whether it has published articles on the same topic and with similar methods to the manuscript you are submitting.

In addition to the above, you may also consider online search engines, which can help generate a list of journals that may be appropriate for the manuscript being submitted:

JournalFinder
Springer Nature: Journal suggester
Enago’s Open Access Journal Finder
Journal/Author Name Estimator

Can you submit a paper to multiple journals at once?

No. Submitting a paper to multiple journals at once contravenes publishing guidelines and presents serious ethical concerns.

Is there a uniform format that I should submit my manuscript in?

Make sure to carefully read the manuscript submission instructions available on every journal’s webpage. Although there are certain rules that most journals follow (e.g. formatting in APA Style), each journal provides specific guidelines about certain aspects, for example the information that must be included within the manuscript.

What’s a predatory journal?

A predatory journal is a counterfeit publication that imitates that of a legitimate, respected publisher. Predatory publishers use various techniques to trick scholars into submitting their article for publication. A predatory publisher will usually solicit articles via email, emphasizing a publishing fee and touting a quick turnaround that often omits peer review.

Although the publishing fee is a red flag when it comes to identifying a predatory journal, not all journals that charge a publishing fee are predatory (see next question for more information). For tips on how to identify a predatory journal, see the following resources:

Scholars beware
How to avoid predatory publishers

Publishing fees

Does it usually cost money to publish?

It’s important to note that many journals do not charge the author(s) or their institution to publish an article. There are exceptions, however.

Some journals may charge a fee for publishing the article in a particular format. For example, some authors prefer or require their figures to be printed in color. Because printing in color costs more to the publisher, some journals may require a fee for each figure to be printed in color. Other journals may print one color figure for free, but charge for every additional color figure.

An increasing number of journals are also adding open access options which, when chosen, require fees paid by the author or their institution. Further, some reputable journals have recently gone entirely open access and thus require a fee to publish (the fee varies by journal). Open access journals are free to read for all and do not receive revenue from journal subscriptions—therefore, in many cases, an article publishing fee is charged to offset the cost of publishing (e.g., peer review management, production costs).

For example, APA’s open access journal Technology, Mind, and Behavior charges a $1,200 article processing charge (APC), however an author may apply for an APC waiver if they are unable to pay via grant, institutional funding, or by other means outlined on the journal website.

As such, it is important to recognize that journals charging a fee are not necessarily “predatory”—it’s crucial to consider other factors to figure out the legitimacy of the publication.

What is the difference between an open access journal and the open science movement?

Open access is a publishing model in which the author pays a fee to publish; the reader is able to access the article for free. Some journals are entirely open access, while others are “hybrid”—providing both a subscription as well as an open access publishing option.

Open science , on the other hand, is a movement towards increased transparency in publishing. It goes beyond open access, offering guidelines on the type of information that authors should include in their manuscript: for example, APA Style JARS provide guidelines for the details that authors should include in their methods section. Open science initiatives include data sharing, preregistration, preprints, registered reports, and more. The goals of open science initiatives are to increase openness and collaboration, and to improve reproducibility of science and research discovery.

Licensing and copyright

How does licensing and copyright work?

Authors usually own the copyright of their original work and are free to share, without limitation, any version of their articles prior to the final text (after the journal proofing / copy editing process). However, licensing of article versions and individual publisher stances on sharing of accepted articles vary and change frequently. Fortunately, there are many resources to help authors keep track of individual policies. For example, the Sherpa Romeo website includes a conveniently searchable tool of journals’ copyright and open access policies on a journal-by-journal basis.

The Open Science Knowledge Base provides detailed information and recommendations about licensing content .

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Home → Get Published → How to Publish a Research Paper: A Step-by-Step Guide

How to Publish a Research Paper: A Step-by-Step Guide

Jordan Kruszynski

January 4, 2024

You’re in academia.

You’re going steady.

Your research is going well and you begin to wonder: ‘ How exactly do I get a research paper published?’

If this is the question on your lips, then this step-by-step guide is the one for you. We’ll be walking you through the whole process of how to publish a research paper.

Publishing a research paper is a significant milestone for researchers and academics, as it allows you to share your findings, contribute to your field of study, and start to gain serious recognition within the wider academic community. So, want to know how to publish a research paper? By following our guide, you’ll get a firm grasp of the steps involved in this process, giving you the best chance of successfully navigating the publishing process and getting your work out there.

Understanding the Publishing Process

To begin, it’s crucial to understand that getting a research paper published is a multi-step process. From beginning to end, it could take as little as 2 months before you see your paper nestled in the pages of your chosen journal. On the other hand, it could take as long as a year .

Below, we set out the steps before going into more detail on each one. Getting a feel for these steps will help you to visualise what lies ahead, and prepare yourself for each of them in turn. It’s important to remember that you won’t actually have control over every step – in fact, some of them will be decided by people you’ll probably never meet. However, knowing which parts of the process are yours to decide will allow you to adjust your approach and attitude accordingly.

Each of the following stages will play a vital role in the eventual publication of your paper:

Preparing Your Research Paper
Finding the Right Journal
Crafting a Strong Manuscript
Navigating the Peer-Review Process
Submitting Your Paper
Dealing with Rejections and Revising Your Paper

Step 1: Preparing Your Research Paper

It all starts here. The quality and content of your research paper is of fundamental importance if you want to get it published. This step will be different for every researcher depending on the nature of your research, but if you haven’t yet settled on a topic, then consider the following advice:

Choose an interesting and relevant topic that aligns with current trends in your field. If your research touches on the passions and concerns of your academic peers or wider society, it may be more likely to capture attention and get published successfully.
Conduct a comprehensive literature review (link to lit. review article once it’s published) to identify the state of existing research and any knowledge gaps within it. Aiming to fill a clear gap in the knowledge of your field is a great way to increase the practicality of your research and improve its chances of getting published.
Structure your paper in a clear and organised manner, including all the necessary sections such as title, abstract, introduction (link to the ‘how to write a research paper intro’ article once it’s published) , methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
Adhere to the formatting guidelines provided by your target journal to ensure that your paper is accepted as viable for publishing. More on this in the next section…

Step 2: Finding the Right Journal

Understanding how to publish a research paper involves selecting the appropriate journal for your work. This step is critical for successful publication, and you should take several factors into account when deciding which journal to apply for:

Conduct thorough research to identify journals that specialise in your field of study and have published similar research. Naturally, if you submit a piece of research in molecular genetics to a journal that specialises in geology, you won’t be likely to get very far.
Consider factors such as the journal’s scope, impact factor, and target audience. Today there is a wide array of journals to choose from, including traditional and respected print journals, as well as numerous online, open-access endeavours. Some, like Nature , even straddle both worlds.
Review the submission guidelines provided by the journal and ensure your paper meets all the formatting requirements and word limits. This step is key. Nature, for example, offers a highly informative series of pages that tells you everything you need to know in order to satisfy their formatting guidelines (plus more on the whole submission process).
Note that these guidelines can differ dramatically from journal to journal, and details really do matter. You might submit an outstanding piece of research, but if it includes, for example, images in the wrong size or format, this could mean a lengthy delay to getting it published. If you get everything right first time, you’ll save yourself a lot of time and trouble, as well as strengthen your publishing chances in the first place.

Step 3: Crafting a Strong Manuscript

Crafting a strong manuscript is crucial to impress journal editors and reviewers. Look at your paper as a complete package, and ensure that all the sections tie together to deliver your findings with clarity and precision.

Begin by creating a clear and concise title that accurately reflects the content of your paper.
Compose an informative abstract that summarises the purpose, methodology, results, and significance of your study.
Craft an engaging introduction (link to the research paper introduction article) that draws your reader in.
Develop a well-structured methodology section, presenting your results effectively using tables and figures.
Write a compelling discussion and conclusion that emphasise the significance of your findings.

Step 4: Navigating the Peer-Review Process

Once you submit your research paper to a journal, it undergoes a rigorous peer-review process to ensure its quality and validity. In peer-review, experts in your field assess your research and provide feedback and suggestions for improvement, ultimately determining whether your paper is eligible for publishing or not. You are likely to encounter several models of peer-review, based on which party – author, reviewer, or both – remains anonymous throughout the process.

When your paper undergoes the peer-review process, be prepared for constructive criticism and address the comments you receive from your reviewer thoughtfully, providing clear and concise responses to their concerns or suggestions. These could make all the difference when it comes to making your next submission.

The peer-review process can seem like a closed book at times. Check out our discussion of the issue with philosopher and academic Amna Whiston in The Research Beat podcast!

Step 5: Submitting Your Paper

As we’ve already pointed out, one of the key elements in how to publish a research paper is ensuring that you meticulously follow the journal’s submission guidelines. Strive to comply with all formatting requirements, including citation styles, font, margins, and reference structure.

Before the final submission, thoroughly proofread your paper for errors, including grammar, spelling, and any inconsistencies in your data or analysis. At this stage, consider seeking feedback from colleagues or mentors to further improve the quality of your paper.

Step 6: Dealing with Rejections and Revising Your Paper

Rejection is a common part of the publishing process, but it shouldn’t discourage you. Analyse reviewer comments objectively and focus on the constructive feedback provided. Make necessary revisions and improvements to your paper to address the concerns raised by reviewers. If needed, consider submitting your paper to a different journal that is a better fit for your research.

For more tips on how to publish your paper out there, check out this thread by Dr. Asad Naveed ( @dr_asadnaveed ) – and if you need a refresher on the basics of how to publish under the Open Access model, watch this 5-minute video from Audemic Academy !

Final Thoughts

Successfully understanding how to publish a research paper requires dedication, attention to detail, and a systematic approach. By following the advice in our guide, you can increase your chances of navigating the publishing process effectively and achieving your goal of publication.

Remember, the journey may involve revisions, peer feedback, and potential rejections, but each step is an opportunity for growth and improvement. Stay persistent, maintain a positive mindset, and continue to refine your research paper until it reaches the standards of your target journal. Your contribution to your wider discipline through published research will not only advance your career, but also add to the growing body of collective knowledge in your field. Embrace the challenges and rewards that come with the publication process, and may your research paper make a significant impact in your area of study!

Looking for inspiration for your next big paper? Head to Audemic , where you can organise and listen to all the best and latest research in your field!

Keep striving, researchers! ✨

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How to Publish a Research Paper: A Complete Guide
Self Publishing Guide

How to Publish a Research Paper: A Complete Guide

Read: Learn How to Write & Craft a Compelling Villain for Your Story.

Step 1: Identifying the Right Journal
Step 2: Preparing Step 3: Your Manuscript

Step 3: Conducting a Thorough Review

Step 4: Writing a Compelling Cover Letter

Step 5: Navigating the Peer Review Process

Step 6: Handling Rejections

Step 7: Preparing for Publication

Step 8: Promoting Your Published Paper

Step 1: Identifying the Right Journal

The first step in publishing a research paper is crucial, as it sets the foundation for the entire publication process. Identifying the right journal involves carefully selecting a publication platform that aligns with your research topic, audience, and academic goals. Here are the key considerations to keep in mind during this step:

Scope and Focus : Assess the scope and focus of your research to find journals that publish articles in your field of study. Look for journals that have previously published papers related to your topic or research area.
Readership and Impact Factor : Consider the target audience of the journal and its readership. Higher-impact factor journals typically attract a broader readership and can enhance the visibility and credibility of your research.
Publication Frequency : Investigate the publication frequency of the journal. Some journals publish issues monthly, quarterly, or annually. Choose a journal that aligns with your timeline for publication.
Indexing and Reputation : Check if the journal is indexed in reputable databases, such as Scopus or PubMed. Indexed journals are more likely to be recognized and accessed by researchers worldwide.
Journal Guidelines : Familiarise yourself with the journal’s submission guidelines, available on their website. Pay attention to manuscript length limits, reference styles, and formatting requirements.
Open Access Options : Consider whether the journal offers open access publishing. Open-access journals allow unrestricted access to your paper, potentially increasing its visibility and impact.
Ethical Considerations : Ensure the journal follows ethical publication practises and abides by industry standards. Verify if the journal is a member of reputable publishing organisations, such as COPE (the Committee on Publication Ethics).
Publication Fees : Check if the journal charges any publication fees or article processing charges (APCs). These fees can vary significantly among journals and may influence your decision.
Target Audience : Consider the journal’s target audience and the level of technical detail appropriate for that audience. Some journals cater to a more specialised readership, while others aim for a broader appeal.
Journal Reputation : Research the reputation of the journal within your academic community. Seek advice from colleagues or mentors who have published in similar journals.

By carefully considering these factors, you can make an informed decision on the most suitable journal for your research paper. Selecting the right journal increases your chances of acceptance and ensures that your work reaches the intended audience, contributing to the advancement of knowledge in your field.

Step 2: Preparing Your Manuscript

After identifying the appropriate journal, the next step is to prepare your manuscript for submission. This stage involves meticulous attention to detail and adherence to the journal’s specific author guidelines. Here’s a comprehensive guide to preparing your manuscript:

Read Author Guidelines : Carefully read and understand the journal’s author guidelines, which are available on the journal’s website. The guidelines provide instructions on manuscript preparation, the submission process, and formatting requirements.
Manuscript Structure : Follow the standard structure for a research paper, including the abstract, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections. Ensure that each section is clear and well-organised.
Title and Abstract : Craft a concise and informative title that reflects the main focus of your research. The abstract should provide a summary of your study’s objectives, methods, results, and conclusions.
Introduction : The introduction should introduce the research problem, provide context, and state the research objectives or questions. Engage readers by highlighting the significance of your research.
Methodology : Describe the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques used in your study. Provide sufficient detail to enable other researchers to replicate your study.
Results : Present your findings in a clear and logical manner. Use tables, graphs, and figures to enhance the presentation of data. Avoid interpreting the results in this section.
Discussion : Analyse and interpret your results in the discussion section. Relate your findings to the research objectives and previously published literature. Discuss the implications of your results and any limitations of your study.
Conclusion : In the conclusion, summarise the key findings of your research and restate their significance. Avoid introducing new information in this section.
Citations and References : Cite all sources accurately and consistently throughout the manuscript. Follow the journal’s preferred citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago.
Proofreading and Editing : Thoroughly proofread your manuscript to correct any grammatical errors, typos, or inconsistencies. Edit for clarity, conciseness, and logical flow.
Figures and Tables : Ensure that all figures and tables are clear, properly labelled, and cited in the main text. Follow the journal’s guidelines for the formatting of figures and tables.
Ethical Considerations : Include any necessary statements regarding ethical approval, conflicts of interest, or data availability, as required by the journal.

By meticulously preparing your manuscript and adhering to the journal’s guidelines, you increase the likelihood of a successful submission. A well-structured and polished manuscript enhances the readability and impact of your research, ultimately increasing your chances of acceptance for publication.

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The process of conducting a thorough review of your research paper is a critical step in the publication journey. This step ensures that your work is polished, accurate, and ready for submission to a journal. A well-reviewed paper increases the chances of acceptance and demonstrates your commitment to producing high-quality research. Here are the key aspects to consider during the review process:

Grammatical Errors and Typos : Start by carefully proofreading your paper for any grammatical errors, typos, or spelling mistakes. Even minor errors can undermine the credibility of your research and distract readers from your main points. Use grammar-checking tools, but also read your paper line by line to catch any issues that zated tools might miss.
Consistency and Clarity : Ensure that your writing is consistent throughout the paper. Check that you have used the same terminology, abbreviations, and formatting consistently. Additionally, pay attention to sentence structure and coherence, making sure that each paragraph flows logically into the next.
Accuracy of Data, Graphs, and Tables : Review all the data presented in your research, including figures, graphs, and tables. Verify that the data is accurate, correctly labelled, and represented in a clear and understandable manner. Any errors in data representation can lead to misinterpretations and undermine the reliability of your findings.
Citation and Referencing : Verify that all the sources you have cited are accurate and properly formatted according to the citation style required by the target journal. Missing or incorrect citations can lead to accusations of plagiarism and harm the integrity of your work.
Addressing Feedback : If you have received feedback from colleagues, mentors, or peer reviewers during the pre-submission process, carefully consider their suggestions and address any concerns raised. Engaging with feedback shows your willingness to improve and strengthen your paper.
Objective Evaluation : Try to read your paper with a critical eye, as if you were a reviewer assessing its merits. Identify any weaknesses or areas that could be improved, both in terms of content and presentation. Be open to rewriting or restructuring sections that could benefit from further clarity or depth.
Seek Feedback : To ensure the highest quality, seek feedback from colleagues or mentors who are knowledgeable in your research field. They can provide valuable insights and offer suggestions for improvement. Peer review can identify blind spots and help you refine your arguments.
Formatting and Guidelines : Review the journal’s specific formatting and submission guidelines. Adhering to these requirements demonstrates your attention to detail and increases the likelihood of acceptance.

In conclusion, conducting a thorough review of your research paper is an essential step before submission. It involves checking for grammatical errors, ensuring clarity and consistency, verifying data accuracy, addressing feedback, and seeking external input. A well-reviewed paper enhances its chances of publication and contributes to the overall credibility of your research.

The cover letter is your opportunity to make a strong first impression on the journal’s editor and to persuade them that your research paper is a valuable contribution to their publication. It serves as a bridge between your work and the editor, highlighting the significance and originality of your study and explaining why it is a good fit for the journal. Here are the key elements to include in a compelling cover letter:

Introduction : Start the letter with a professional and cordial greeting, addressing the editor by their name if possible. Introduce yourself and provide your affiliation, including your academic title and institution. Mention the title of your research paper and its co-authors, if any.
Brief Summary of Research : Provide a concise and compelling summary of your research. Clearly state the research question or problem you addressed, the methodology you employed, and your main findings. Emphasise the significance of your research and its potential impact on the field.
Highlight Originality : Explain what sets your study apart from existing research in the field. Highlight the original contributions your paper makes, whether it’s a novel approach, new insights, or addressing a gap in the literature. Demonstrating the novelty of your work will capture the editor’s attention.
Fit with the Journal : Explain why your research is a good fit for the target journal. Refer to recent articles published in the journal that are related to your topic and discuss how your research complements or extends those works. Aligning your paper with the journal’s scope and objectives enhances your chances of acceptance.
Addressing Specific Points : If the journal’s author guidelines include specific requirements, address them in your cover letter. This shows that you have read and followed their guidelines carefully. For example, if the journal requires you to highlight the practical implications of your research, briefly mention these in your letter.
Previous Engagement : If you have presented your research at a conference, workshop, or seminar, or if it has been previously reviewed (e.g., as a preprint), mention it in the cover letter. This indicates that your work has already undergone some scrutiny and may strengthen its appeal to the journal.
Declaration of Originality : State that the paper is original, has not been published elsewhere, and is not under simultaneous consideration by any other publication. This declaration reassures the editor that your work meets the journal’s submission policies.
Contact Information : Provide your contact details, including email and phone number, and express your willingness to address any queries or provide additional information if needed.
Expression of Gratitude : Thank the editor for their time and consideration in reviewing your submission.

In conclusion, a well-crafted cover letter complements your research paper and convinces the journal’s editor of the significance and originality of your work. It should provide a succinct overview of your research, highlight its relevance to the journal’s scope, and address any specific points raised in the author guidelines. A compelling cover letter increases the likelihood of your paper being seriously considered for publication.

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The peer review process is a crucial step in scholarly publishing, designed to ensure the quality, accuracy, and validity of research papers before they are accepted for publication. After you submit your manuscript to a journal, it is sent to peer reviewers who are experts in your field. These reviewers carefully assess your work, providing feedback and recommendations to the editor. Navigating the peer review process requires patience, open-mindedness, and a willingness to engage constructively with reviewers. Here’s a detailed explanation of this step:

Submission and Assignment : Once you submit your paper, the journal’s editorial team performs an initial screening to check if it aligns with the journal’s scope and guidelines. If it does, the editor assigns peer reviewers who have expertise in the subject matter of your research.
Reviewing Process : The peer reviewers evaluate your paper’s methodology, data analysis, conclusions, and overall contribution to the field. They may assess the clarity of your writing, the strength of your arguments, and the relevance of your findings. Reviewers also look for potential flaws or limitations in your study.
Reviewer Feedback : After the reviewers have thoroughly examined your paper, they provide feedback to the editor. The feedback usually falls into three categories: acceptance, revision, or rejection. In the case of a revision, reviewers may specify the changes they believe are necessary for the paper to meet the journal’s standards.
Editor’s Decision : Based on the reviewers’ feedback, the editor makes a decision about your paper. The decision could be acceptance, conditional acceptance pending minor revisions, major revisions, or rejection. Even if your paper is rejected, remember that the peer review process provides valuable feedback that can help improve your research.
Responding to Reviewer Comments : If your paper requires revisions, carefully read the reviewer comments and suggestions. Address each comment in a respectful and diligent manner, providing clear responses and incorporating the necessary changes into your manuscript.
Revised Manuscript Submission : Submit the revised version of your paper along with a detailed response to the reviewers’ comments. Explain the changes you made and how you addressed their concerns. This demonstrates your commitment to enhancing the quality of your research.
Reiteration of the Review Process : Depending on the revisions, the editor may send your paper back to the same reviewers or to new reviewers for a second round of evaluation. This process continues until the paper is either accepted for publication or deemed unsuitable for the journal.
Acceptance and Publication : If your paper successfully navigates the peer review process and meets the journal’s standards, it will be accepted for publication. Congratulations on reaching this milestone!

In conclusion, the peer review process is an essential part of academic publishing. It involves expert evaluation of your research by peers in the field, who provide valuable feedback to improve the quality and rigour of your paper. Embrace the feedback with an open mind, respond diligently to reviewer comments, and be patient during the review process. Navigating peer review is a collaborative effort to ensure that only high-quality and significant research contributes to the scholarly community.

Receiving a rejection of your research paper can be disheartening, but it is a common and normal part of the publication process. It’s important to remember that rejection does not necessarily reflect the quality of your work; many groundbreaking studies have faced rejection before finding the right publication platform. Handling rejections requires resilience, a growth mindset, and the willingness to learn from the feedback. Here’s a comprehensive explanation of this step:

Understanding the Decision : When you receive a rejection, take the time to carefully read the editor’s decision letter and the feedback provided by the peer reviewers. Understand the reasons for the rejection and the specific concerns raised about your paper.
Embrace Constructive Feedback : Peer reviewer comments can provide valuable insights into the strengths and weaknesses of your research. Embrace the feedback constructively, recognising that it presents an opportunity to improve your work.
Assessing Revisions : If the decision letter includes suggestions for revisions, carefully consider whether you agree with them. Evaluate if implementing these revisions aligns with your research goals and the core message of your paper.
Revising the Manuscript : If you decide to make revisions based on the feedback, thoroughly address the reviewer’s comments and consider making any necessary improvements to your research. Pay close attention to the areas identified by the reviewers as needing improvement.
Resubmission or Alternative Journals : After revising your manuscript, you have the option to either resubmit it to the same journal (if allowed) or consider submitting it to a different journal. If you choose the latter, ensure that the new journal aligns with your research topic and scope.
Tailoring the Submission : When submitting to a different journal, tailor your manuscript and cover letter to fit the specific requirements and preferences of that journal. Highlight the relevance of your research to the journal’s readership and address any unique guidelines they have.
Don’t Lose Hope : Rejections are a natural part of the publication process, and many researchers face them at some point in their careers. It is essential not to lose hope and to remain persistent in pursuing publication opportunities.
Learn and Improve : Use the feedback from the rejection as a learning experience. Identify areas for improvement in your research, writing, and presentation. This will help you grow as a researcher and improve your chances of acceptance in the future.
Seek Support and Guidance : If you are struggling to navigate the publication process or interpret reviewer comments, seek support from colleagues, mentors, or academic advisors. Their insights can provide valuable guidance and encouragement.

In conclusion, handling rejections is a normal part of the publication journey. Approach rejection with a growth mindset, embracing the feedback provided by reviewers as an opportunity to improve your research. Revise your manuscript diligently, and consider submitting it to other journals that align with your research. Remember that persistence, learning from feedback, and seeking support are key to achieving success in the scholarly publishing process.

Unlocking Success: How to Sell Books Online Effectively

After successfully navigating the peer review process and receiving acceptance for your research paper, you are one step closer to seeing your work published in a reputable journal. However, before your paper can be published, you need to prepare it for production according to the journal’s specific requirements. This step is essential to ensuring that your paper meets the journal’s formatting and style guidelines and is ready for dissemination to the academic community. Here’s a comprehensive explanation of this step:

Reviewing the Acceptance Letter : Start by carefully reviewing the acceptance letter from the journal’s editor. This letter will outline any final comments or suggestions from the reviewers that need to be addressed before publication.
Addressing Reviewer Comments : If there are any outstanding revisions or clarifications requested by the reviewers, address them promptly and thoroughly. Reviewer feedback plays a crucial role in enhancing the quality and clarity of your paper, so it’s essential to give each comment due attention.
Adhering to Journal Guidelines : Familiarise yourself with the journal’s production requirements and guidelines for formatting, referencing, and figure preparation. Ensure that your paper adheres to these guidelines to avoid delays in the publication process.
Finalising the Manuscript : Once all revisions have been made and the paper aligns with the journal’s requirements, finalise your manuscript. Carefully proofread the entire paper to catch any remaining grammatical errors or typos.
Handling Permissions and Copyright : If your paper includes copyrighted material (e.g., figures, tables, or excerpts from other publications), obtain permission from the original copyright holders to reproduce that content in your paper. This is crucial to avoid potential copyright infringement issues.
Completing Authorship and Affiliation Details : Verify that all authors’ names, affiliations, and contact information are accurate and consistent. Ensure that the corresponding author is clearly identified for communication with the journal during the publication process.
Submitting the Final Manuscript : Follow the journal’s instructions to submit the final version of your manuscript along with any required supplementary materials. This may include high-resolution figures, data sets, or additional supporting information.
Waiting for Publication : After submitting the final version, the journal’s production team will work on typesetting, formatting, and preparing your paper for publication. This process may take some time, depending on the journal’s workflow and schedule.
Proofing and Corrections : Once the typeset proof is ready, carefully review it for any formatting errors or typographical mistakes. Respond to the journal promptly with any necessary corrections or clarifications.
Copyright Transfer : If required by the journal, complete the copyright transfer agreement, granting the publisher the right to publish and distribute your work.
Publication Date and DOI : Your paper will be assigned a publication date and a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), a unique alphanumeric string that provides a permanent link to your paper, making it easily accessible and citable.

In conclusion, preparing your research paper for publication involves carefully addressing reviewer comments, adhering to journal guidelines, handling permissions and copyright issues, and submitting the final version for production. Thoroughly reviewing and finalising your paper will ensure its readiness for dissemination to the academic community.

Congratulations on successfully publishing your research paper! Now, it’s time to promote your work to reach a broader audience and increase its visibility within the academic and research communities. Effective promotion can lead to more citations, recognition, and potential collaborations. Here’s a comprehensive explanation of this step:

Share on Social Media : Utilise social media platforms to announce the publication of your paper. Share the title, abstract, and a link to the paper on your professional profiles, such as LinkedIn , Twitter , or ResearchGate . Engage with your followers to generate interest and discussion.
Collaborate with Colleagues : Collaborate with your co-authors and colleagues to promote the paper collectively. Encourage them to share the publication on their social media and academic networks. A collaborative effort can increase the paper’s visibility and reach.
Academic Networks and Research Platforms : Upload your paper to academic networks and research platforms like Academia.edu, Mendeley, or Google Scholar. This allows other researchers to discover and cite your work more easily.
Email and Newsletters : Inform your professional contacts and research network about the publication through email announcements or newsletters. Consider writing a brief summary of your paper’s key findings and significance to entice readers to access the full paper.
Research Blog or Website : If you have a personal research blog or website, create a dedicated post announcing the publication. Provide a summary of your research and its implications in a reader-friendly format.
Engage with the Academic Community : Participate in academic conferences, workshops, and seminars to present your research. Networking with other researchers and sharing your findings in person can create buzz around your paper.
Press Releases : If your research has practical implications or societal relevance, consider working with your institution’s press office to issue a press release about your paper. This can attract media attention and increase public awareness.
Academic and Research Forums : Engage in online academic and research forums to discuss your findings and share insights. Be active in relevant discussions to establish yourself as an expert in your field.
Researcher Profiles : Keep your researcher profiles, such as those on Google Scholar, ORCID, and Scopus, updated with your latest publications. This ensures that your paper is indexed and visible to other researchers searching for related work.
Altmetrics : Monitor the altmetrics of your paper to track its online attention, including mentions, downloads, and social media shares. Altmetrics provide additional metrics beyond traditional citations, giving you insights into your paper’s broader impact.
Engage with Feedback : Respond to comments and questions from readers who engage with your paper. Engaging in scholarly discussions can further promote your work and demonstrate your expertise in the field.

In conclusion, promoting your published paper is an essential step to increasing its visibility, impact, and potential for further collaboration. Utilise social media, academic networks, collaborations with colleagues, and engagement with the academic community to create interest in your work. Effective promotion can lead to more citations and recognition, enhancing the overall impact of your research.

Read: Here’s a list of 10 best short story books to read in 2023 that you can’t miss.

Publishing a research paper is a rewarding experience that requires dedication, perseverance, and attention to detail. By following this essential guide, you can navigate the publication process successfully and contribute valuable knowledge to your field of study.

Remember, each publication is a stepping stone in your academic journey, and even rejections provide opportunities for growth. Embrace the process, continue refining your research, and celebrate your contributions to advancing scientific knowledge. Good luck on your journey to academic success!

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15 Journals to Publish Your Research in High School

Pursuing research at the high school level is one of the best ways for you to demonstrate co-curricular academic competence. Getting this study published is an added bonus because it will give your research a certain amount of credibility and backing.

High school students might find guidance on how to conduct their research, but very few are familiar with academic journals that publish high school research. This guide will give you recommendations on where to consider publishing your research. Regardless of your subject of interest, we have options for you here! However, before we get to the recommendations, let’s look at some points to keep in mind while deciding journals and why it is a good decision to publish.

Do I need to publish my research in high school?

Getting your research published is not a necessity. In fact, many of our students do not choose to get their work published and still manage to get into the top college programs across the world.

However, over the course of guiding students to top journals in the last few years, we have to come to see immense value in publication . We now recommend most of our students to aim for publication.

There are three reasons for this. Firstly, we believe that a researcher/scientist’s job is not just to study an area for individual curiosity, but also to communicate the findings to the rest of the world to enhance the understanding of a particular topic. Expanding the frontiers of human knowledge is one of the goals that researchers should strive towards. Secondly, the process of getting research published itself is a whole experience. It is the closest feeling you will get to being a scientist at the high school level. Having your work critically reviewed by Ph.D. researchers in your field is a great learning experience as it will point out the academic loopholes in your work. It has the potential to make you a better student. Incorporating that feedback and communicating with the editorial team is another aspect of this valuable experience.

Finally, getting your work published gives your work credibility to the external world. Whether it is a college application or a summer program, we believe the research that is published will make a stronger impression than unpublished research.

What to look for in a high school research journal?

Deciding what journal works best for you can be confusing if you are new to academic publishing. In this section, we will give you a brief overview of three factors you can take into consideration when deciding what journal works best for you.

First, for many students, prestige is the most important factor when deciding where to submit their research . For STEM students, this preference might lead them to the Columbia Junior Science Journal whereas, for humanities students, the preference might lead to The Concorde Review as the first choice. However, an important thing to keep in mind regarding this preference is that your choice for the most prestigious journal should be followed by the highest quality research . Similar to how unless you have a good profile, applying to Harvard might just end up wasting money and time!

Secondly, the nature of research is another important parameter to be aware of. One of the first things that we ask our Publication Program students is about the nature of research and whether they are conducting original research or a literature review. Based on what the answer is, our recommendation can vary since some journals do not accept literature reviews.

Finally, the time taken to get published is another important metric that students should keep in mind. If you are somebody applying to college in November and are looking for potential journals for your research in August, we would not recommend journals like the Journal of Emerging Investigators which takes almost 7-8 months to publish research.

Now that we have seen the importance of getting published and what to keep in mind, let us look at some of our recommendations:

Journal of Emerging Investigators : The journal of emerging investigators is usually our top recommendation for students who are doing original research in STEM fields. JEI is particularly well known for its extensive review process that can take as long as 7-8 months. The most important thing to keep in mind is that JEI only accepts original hypothesis-driven research. Another important point is that while the JEI website is dominated by research in the STEM fields, they also accept research from other disciplines. For instance, if you conduct original research on financial markets or political preferences based on demographics, you can still submit with the help of these guidelines. Here is our extensive guide to publishing in JEI. Cost: $35 submission fee, need-based fee waiver is available Deadline: Rolling Subject area: STEM mainly but non-STEM is accepted if original research Type of research: Original hypothesis-based research Estimated acceptance rate: 70-75%

National High School Journal of Science : The NHSJS is run and peer-reviewed by high school students around the world, with a scientific advisory board of adult academics. The journal usually takes 1-2 months to decide whether to accept a submission and an additional editing process that lasts up to 1 month. NHSJS accepts practically all science and social science disciplines on a rolling basis. We usually recommend NHSJS as a backup journal given its relatively higher acceptance rate. Based on our experience of guiding students to NHSJS, we estimate that it has an acceptance rate of approximately 70%. Cost: $250 for publication Deadline: Rolling Subject area: All science and social science disciplines Type of research: Original research, literature review Estimated acceptance rate: 60-70%

International Journal of High School Research : IJHSR publishes high school student research work in behavioral and social sciences, technology, engineering, and math, both original research and literature review articles. Six issues are published each year. IJHSR has a rolling submissions window and has open access to the public. It is run by the nonprofit Terra Science and Education. A unique aspect of the IJHSR is that it requires you to contact and acquire 3 professors or post-doctoral scholars who agree to review your paper. This is a fairly time-consuming process, so if you’re aiming to publish in IJHSR, we would recommend that you get started on this early in your research process! Cost: $200 Deadline: Rolling Subject area: All science and social science subjects Type of research: Original Research, Literature Review Estimated acceptance rate: 20-30%

STEM Fellowship Journal : An open-access, peer-reviewed journal for scholarly research by high school and university students in the STEM fields, run by Canadian Science Publishing. The journal accepts original investigations, review articles, and "viewpoints", usually around 5 pages long. While SFJ is a great option, in our experience, we have noticed that the journal can often lag in terms of communication with the students who submit there. Also, while the journal previously reviewed articles on a 2-month timeline, this has extended to 4-5 months over 2022-2023. Please keep this in mind, especially if you are on a tight deadline! Cost: $400 Deadline: Rolling Subject area: All Scientific Disciplines Type of research: Hypothesis Driven Research, Review, Abstract, Original Research Estimated Acceptance Rate: 5-10%

Journal of Student Research : This is a multidisciplinary, and faculty-reviewed journal based in Houston, Texas that publishes research by high school, undergraduate, and graduate students. The journal publishes articles in an array of disciplines and in general, papers on all topics, ranging from applied to theoretical research in any discipline, are eligible for submission. The Journal of Student Research (JSR) is particularly popular among high school students due to the variety of research it accepts. Interested high school students can submit research projects, research articles/posters, review articles, and also AP Capstone Research to Journal of Student Research. We usually recommend students aim for a more selective journal as a target and in case that does not work out, the Journal of Student Research can be a good safety option. In our experience of guiding more than a hundred students through JSR, we believe that the Journal of Student Research (JSR) is best suited as a backup option due to its relatively high acceptance rate. However, please be wary of it’s long publishing timeline (around 6-7 months). Here is our guide to the Journal of Student Research. Cost: $50 to Submit and $200 Publication Cost (if accepted) Deadline: Fixed Deadlines in February, May, August, and November Subject area: All Academic Disciplines Type of research: All types of academic articles Estimated Acceptance Rate: 70-80%

Journal of High School Science : JHSS is a peer-reviewed STEM Journal that publishes research and ideas of high school students. JHSS is also best suited as a backup given its relatively high publication acceptance rate compared to options like STEM Fellowship Journal and Journal of Emerging Investigators. However, in our experience, for students looking for a more secure backup, we would recommend the NHSJS over the JHSS since the JHSS is slightly more selective compared to NHSJS. Cost: Free Deadline: Rolling Subject area: All science and social science subjects Type of research: Original Research, Literature Review Estimated acceptance rate: 20%

Stanford Intersect : Intersect is an international Science, Technology, and Society research journal run by undergraduate students at Stanford University and supported by the Program in STS at Stanford. It publishes research and scholarship on the social factors that shape research and invention. While the website states otherwise, Stanford Intersect does accept research from high school students on topics at the intersection of science, technology, and society. In our experience of guiding students to get published here, we rate this journal as extremely selective and only recommend this option to the best students that we have. We have also noticed that students using AI-based methods in research tends to do particularly well here. Cost: Free Deadline: Rolling Subject area: Science, Technology, and Society Type of research: Research Articles, Papers/Essays, Thesis Chapters, Book Reviews, Editorials, Interviews, Multimedia Estimated Acceptance Rate: < 5% (for high schoolers)

Young Scientist Journal : Young Scientist is another publication that recognizes the achievements of high school scientists. It is published by the Vanderbilt Center for Science Outreach, a group that works in the field of scientific and technological literacy through the establishment of unique partnerships between Vanderbilt University scientists, K-12 educators and students, and the local and global science community. At Lumiere, YSJ is another one of our selective recommendations for students who are producing the highest quality of research. Cost: Free Deadline: December Subject area: Sciences Type of research: Original research, literature review Estimated Acceptance Rate: 10-15%

The Concord Review : The Concord Review is a quarterly journal publishing history essays by high school students. It is the most prestigious journal for high school students in the social sciences. Its prestige comes from its high level of selectivity (currently less than 5%), focus on quality, and long track record of winners going on to top universities. The quality of the published papers is also very high, with the average length of papers in the past year at 9000 words. A qualitative assessment of the quality of the papers also indicates significant time invested and a high level of writing. We have covered this in a lot more detail in a separate post here . Cost: $50 to Submit and $200 Publication Cost (if accepted) Deadline: Fixed Deadlines in February, May, August, and November Subject area: All Academic Disciplines Type of research: All types of academic articles Estimated Acceptance Rate: < 5 %

Schola : Schola is a quarterly journal of humanities and social sciences essays written by high school students worldwide. They publish essays on wide-ranging topics in humanities and social sciences. The Schola accepts essays written on topics in philosophy, history, art history, English, economics, public policy, and sociology. Essay topics and questions must be academic, answerable, and specific to be sufficiently examined in an essay of 4,000-5,000 words. Published essays and their authors are announced in the first week of each issue month: March, June, September, and December. A subscription provides access to all journals in the Archives. Schola is one of our top recommendations for students interested in the social sciences/humanities due to its rigorous review process and selectivity. The quality of work published is also very high. Cost: $120 Deadline: Rolling Subject area: Humanities Type of research: Literature (review/critique, poem, prose), research papers, art (illustration, photography), editorials. Estimated Acceptance Rate: 20%

Hope Humanities Journal : HOPE is an online humanities platform for everyone interested in the humanities. It provides an international and non-profit academic platform, with the mission of advocating for the humanities and recognizing young writers’ achievements. They accept literature (poem, prose), research papers, art (illustration, photography), and editorials. Papers are accepted on a "rolling admission" basis and issues are published on a two-month-per-issue* basis. Submitted works are eligible for at least the next two issues. HOPE is another one of our go-to options for Humanities students after the Schola. Cost: $100 Deadline: Rolling Subject area: Humanities Type of research: Literature (review/critique, poem, prose), research papers, art (illustration, photography), editorials. Estimated Acceptance Rate: 30%

Open Journal of Business and Managemen t (OJBM) : OJBM is an international journal dedicated to the latest advancement in the study of business and management. The goal of this journal is to provide a platform for scientists and academicians all over the world to promote, share, and discuss various new issues and developments in different areas of business and management. We recommend OJBM as a good option for students interested in the field of business studies and management. It is one of the few journals that accept research in business and management from high school students. An important thing to keep in mind is that there is a distinction between business and economics that we are making here i.e. many concepts of economics might not be included within the realm of business. Hence, if you are doing research on financial markets, IJHSR or JEI (mentioned above) might be better options. Cost: $299 Deadline: Rolling Subject area: Economics and Business Type of research: Most types of academic articles - reviews, original research, short reports Estimated Acceptance Rate: 15-20% (for high schoolers)

Curieux : The Curieux Academic Journal is a youth-led nonprofit founded in 2017 to publish research by high school and middle school students. They currently operate in California but have editors from across the nation. Submitting your paper to Curieux is a great way to get experience in the craft of academic writing. They are open to submissions from any academic subject including the sciences and humanities. They encourage all forms of academic writing including but not limited to research papers, review articles, and humanity/social science pieces. Each year, they publish twelve issues: once per month. At Lumiere, we usually recommend Curieux as a backup publication for students pursuing research in the social sciences and humanities since they have a relatively higher acceptance rate. Cost: $150 Deadline: Rolling Subject area: Engineering, Humanities, and Natural Science, Mathematics, and Social Science Type of research: Including but not limited to research papers, review articles, and humanity/social science pieces. Estimated Acceptance Rate: 60-70%

Journal of Research High School : The Journal of Research High School (JRHS) is an open-access online research journal that aims at publishing academic work prepared exclusively by high school researchers. JRHS publishes across science to social science. They publish biannually but release publications each month! For the publication at JRHS, in general, there are four processes of publication such as original formatting and plagiarism check, peer review, revision, and editorial decision. Each process has a different timeline but in general, the overall turnover timeline is approximately 3 - 6 months. Cost: $100 Deadline: Rolling Subject area: Any academic subject including the sciences and humanities Type of research: Original research and significant literature reviews. Estimated Acceptance Rate: 30%

Walt Whitman Journal of Psychology : The WWJOP is an entirely student-led publication in which high-school student-conducted research and literature reviews in the field of psychology are recognized. The Journal reaches hundreds of schools and psychology students around the world and is published bi-annually and electronically. We have found WWJOP to be a fantastic option for Psychology students given that it offers a specialized publication in Psychology at the high school level. It is one of the few journals at this level to offer a subject specialization. Cost: Free Deadline: Rolling Subject area: Psychology Type of research: Original Research, Analysis Pieces, Letters Estimated acceptance rate: 20-30%

Lumiere Research Scholar Program

If you want to build your own independent research paper and get it published, then consider applying to the Lumiere Research Scholar Program . Last year over 2100 students applied for about 500 spots in the program. You can find the application form here.

You can see our admission results here for our students. Apply here !

Manas is a publication strategy associate at Lumiere Education. He studied public policy and interactive media at NYU and has experience in education consulting.

Cover Image: Stanford Intersect Website

Faculty Issues
Books & Publishing

A Publisher of One's Own

By Charlie Tyson

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Self-published books are on the rise, to the dismay of onlookers who wonder what to expect from a sector where E. L. James’s Fifty Shades of Grey – originally published as online fan fiction by a tiny Australian e-book company – appears to be the best of the lot. More than 391,000 self-published titles appeared in 2012 , according to Bowker, the official ISBN-issuing agency for the U.S. The self-published titles appear to be selling. In 2012, a quarter of Amazon’s top 100 bestselling Kindle books had been self-published through Amazon’s Kindle Direct Publishing service. And in 2013, readers in Britain bought 18 million self-published books , a 79 percent increase in market share compared to the year before.

Academics, meanwhile, inhabit a parallel publishing ecosystem: a constellation of university presses and journals that publish slowly, offer few economic returns, and subject all work to painstaking peer review. Scholars and publishing experts in the U.S. and Britain say self-publishing by academics remains a rarity. A handful of scholars, however, have turned to self-publishing to produce pet projects, such as blistering critiques of academic life. And others have struck away from the publishing mainstream in other ways: by founding journals, establishing independent presses and writing on blogs. Of course, much nontraditional publishing isn't self-publishing. Many online journals or independent presses have peer review that operates in ways similar to traditional academic publications.

Almost no active scholars have eschewed conventional publishing entirely. Educational technologist Martin Weller, a professor at the Open University in the UK, argued in a blog post that “external prestige is probably the greatest factor” spurring academics to chase book contracts rather than publish their own work.

“Self-publishing is seen as rather sordid,” Weller wrote, “the last recourse for the demented author who couldn’t get published anywhere else.”

Nonetheless, many scholars – particularly supporters of the open-access movement, which argues that scholarly research should be available for free online -- have grown increasingly frustrated with academic publishers in recent years, Weller said.

“Mostly publishers are making an economic decision (will this book sell?) rather than an academic one (does it add to the field?),” the educational technologist said in an email.

Academic books are almost never bestsellers, but a book that becomes a required text for a university course can be quite profitable.

“You do all the work, and the returns are very low,” Weller said. “You sign away a ridiculous amount of rights – the form includes future TV rights, merchandising, etc., but you take all the risks … if someone sues because of the book’s content it is your liability.”

Scholarly publishing can also take a long time: up to four or five years, said Steffen Bohm, a professor of management and sustainability at the University of Essex.

These woes – the plodding path to publication, the abdication of control over the material, and the concern, which Bohm also expressed, that academic presses are run to minimize economic losses rather than for the good of the scholarly community – have prompted some professors to venture outside the monastic confines of academic publishing.

Fabio Rojas, an associate professor of sociology at Indiana University, said he’s “still a believer in regular publishing.” (His next book is forthcoming with Cambridge University Press.)

“The reason that academia has value is that we’re people who engage in self-criticism,” Rojas said. “We have peer review. It’s not perfect, it doesn’t always work, and a lot of garbage gets published anyway. But that’s why most of the energy in academia may be on traditionally peer-reviewed materials -- because that’s what the value added is.”

But self-publishing, the sociologist said, “is now a new tool in the tool box.”

“If I want to get something out there that doesn’t quite fit the mold, then I have this new option,” he said. “What if Mark Zuckerberg had to go to the Myspace people and ask permission to start Facebook? That would be absurd. Same thing with academia: after a certain point you have to say, if this is a truly good idea, you have to take the initiative and get it out there.”

In 2011, Rojas self-published a book called Grad Skool Rulz: Everything You Need to Know about Academia from Admissions to Tenure. The book emerged from an online advice column he had written for graduate students.

“People for years kept saying, 'You should write this as a book,' ” he said. “And I thought, no press would ever publish it, because I’m blunt about academia.” (The title’s fast-and-loose spelling might not have passed muster at a scholarly press either.)

The book now sells for $3 online. Rojas said the ability to charge a low price was another advantage self-publishing offered.

“Anybody in the world who has a cell phone, a desktop – they can read this for three bucks or less. And I’ll give it to you for free if you’re financially strapped,” he said. “This doesn’t replace my normal academic publishing, but what it does is it reaches a new audience.”

Like Rojas, Marc Bousquet, an associate professor of English at Emory University, has a book forthcoming with a scholarly press. But Bousquet is also planning to self-publish two books in the next few years.

One of the books will collect a number of blog posts and articles the English professor has previously published. Like Rojas, he plans to take advantage of the freedom self-publishing affords in order to write frankly about academia.

Bousquet’s “real motivation” to self-publish, he said, was “to have complete freedom of content.” He described his book’s content as “frequently inflammatory.”

Despite self-publishing’s increasing ubiquity in non-academic circles, Rojas and Bousquet are still anomalies for incorporating self-published books into their academic (or, at least, academic-related) output.

Roger Whitson, an assistant professor of English at Washington State University, said he thought self-publishing books was, on the whole, an activity that only already-tenured professors could afford to undertake.

“Part of the reason why academics publish pre-tenure is that they want to receive credit for becoming a specialist in the field, and one of the main ways they see that happening is through peer review,” Whitson said. “For pre-tenure people who haven’t established a name in the field, academic publishing is really important.”

After receiving tenure, more academics are in a position “to experiment and demand more from different publishing models,” he said.

Whitson has self-published a book of his own: a collection of writing from his postdoctoral program at Georgia Tech. “I would never consider it a major publication of mine,” he said. “It was just something that was fun.” Whitson does not list the book on his C.V.

Thad McIlroy, an electronic publishing analyst, noted that pre-tenured academics who self-publish might face another problem: marketing.

“For folks who are prominent in the field, they’re going to be able to self-publish and be feasible in the market,” McIlroy said. “For people who aren’t prominent, they’re going to have a credibility problem.”

Although self-publishing poses no impediments, it does not “guarantee an audience,” the publishing analyst said.

“There’s so much noise out there that to be heard above any of the noise, regardless of the topics you’re publishing on, is hugely difficult,” McIlroy said. But for academics willing to forego “the endorsement of the learned journal or the learned university press,” the self-publishing channel is “quite accessible,” he said.

At nearly all institutions, self-published content plays no part in tenure decisions.

Weller, from the Open University, said the exclusion of self-published material from tenure evaluations should not be an ironclad rule. “[I]f a self-published book went on to become highly influential (for the right reasons) in its field, then why shouldn't it count?” Weller said.

Despite the ease of self-publishing, the benefits of peer review and the stamp of an authoritative publisher remain irresistible currency in the academic world. Stephen Robertson, director of the Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media at George Mason University, noted: “If you’re wedded to the book as the form you want to publish in, there are few advantages to self-publishing.”

In other words, why would a scholar publish in a traditional form – the monograph – but in an untraditional way?

For an academic to self-publish a book is rare. For an academic to self-publish a blog post, on the other hand, is increasingly common. And blogging, too, can be a way to escape the strictures of traditional scholarly publishing.

“Self-publishing is how we live now,” Bousquet said. “Self-publication is a name for the many other forms of communication that precede and follow the emergence of the traditional book. In some cases you may see the replacement of the traditional book, or you may see the traditional book being more of a print-on-demand kind of thing.”

Whitson said he thought forms of self-publishing such as blogging should be taken into account when assessing a scholar’s bid for tenure or promotion.

“I think ideally it would be great to maybe have a number of different ways that scholars can communicate with each other that are recognized by academia,” Whitson said. “I’m a big advocate for them recognizing, in some way, my blogging activity as part of my research while also acknowledging that it’s not the same thing as a full-length monograph.”

Blogging is a common practice among a younger generation of scholars. Many academics – for example, scholars like Whitson who are involved with digital humanities -- find that many of their scholarly conversations take place online.

Other scholars, however, aim for a middle ground. They want to avoid the hassles of academic publishing, but they don’t want to abandon the long-cherished forms that scholarship tends to take: the review, the article, the monograph. And they hesitate to publish through Amazon or through similar websites like Smashwords or Lulu, which publish all manuscripts without any screening process.

The online, open-access journal Sociological Science is one example of how scholars have tried to develop alternative publishing models. The journal is peer-reviewed: well-regarded sociologists select which papers to publish. But the journal does not offer editorial suggestions, and it publishes all accepted papers within 30 days of receiving them.

Bohm, from the University of Essex, has found yet another way to avoid the frustrations of scholarly publishing. In 2005 he co-founded Mayfly Books, an independent open-access press. The press is run by a group of academics, Bohm said. (Mayfly’s website declares itself an alternative to the publishing industry , which, the website claims, “is no longer in public hands and hence fails to represent any public.”)

Mayfly Books reviews its manuscripts, but does so quickly.

“We have published stuff that between the conception of the idea and having it in print, it took nine or ten months,” Bohm said.

The Essex professor said some concerns with scholarly publishing were endemic to the UK.

“In the UK you literally have Oxford and Cambridge, and that’s more or less it,” Bohm said. American university presses rarely show up at academic conferences in Europe, he added, which makes it difficult for European academics to establish connections with publishers overseas.

“I think there’s a need to establish new academic university presses to increase competition and to not just run it for making profits, as it were, although I don’t have much hope,” he said.

Between fed-up academics and an array of new publishing technologies – as well as strong ideological support, in some corners, for the idea that all published research should be free – scholarly publishing seems like particularly fraught terrain. Despite the noise, however, most academics continue to publish in traditional channels.

“Publishers and academics need to get back to a mutually beneficial relationship,” Weller said. “[I]t has become increasingly antagonistic.”

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Year-long fallout over retracted trans youth paper highlights new research era

Fallout from the retracted paper ultimately led to one editor’s resignation.

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By Anil Oza

Sept. 18, 2024

Sharon Begley Science Reporting Fellow

Last year, a Springer Nature journal published a study surveying 1,700 parents of adolescents and young adults with gender dysphoria. Just a few months later, the study was retracted because there had been no formal process for those parents to consent to the study.

But the story didn’t end there. Ongoing fallout from the paper and its retraction has opened up an internal rift among academic editors and journal staff that led to one editor’s resignation, as first reported by Retraction Watch .

The controversy, outside experts say, is a microcosm of an important shift in how academic circles think about research on trans people and other marginalized communities. Advocacy from members of those communities, including Black and Indigenous scientists as well as disabled scientists, aims to ensure that the subjects of research play a central role in shaping it.

“The entire point of any research related to transgender and gender diverse people should be to improve the health of that population,” said Alex Keuroghlian, the director of the National LGBTQIA+ Health Education Center. “Any research about a community should be led by that community, or at least robustly include community voice.”

The ripple effect of a retraction

The retracted article, “ Rapid Onset Gender Dysphoria: Parent Reports on 1655 Possible Cases ,” was published in March 2023 in the Springer Nature journal Archives of Sexual Behavior. Rapid onset gender dysphoria is a much-criticized theory that, as the paper explains, suggests social contagion leads adolescents to “falsely believe that they are transgender, and that they must undergo social and medical gender transition to resolve their issues.”

Rapid onset gender dysphoria is not an accepted medical diagnosis, and experts dispute the hypothesis, pointing to surveys of transgender and gender diverse people that show they have often understood themselves as transgender for years before they began telling other people.

The study surveyed parents of trans youth who found and contacted the website ParentsofROGDKids.com, which the study’s authors note is a self-selecting group of parents “unlikely to be supportive about their children’s transgender status.” According to the parents, their children’s mental health deteriorated after transitioning. The backlash to the study was swift, with researchers arguing that the study did not obtain proper consent before or after data were collected. For those reasons, it was ultimately retracted a few months later, in June 2023.

“Yeah, there are certain things that could have been done better,” Michael Bailey, a psychologist at Northwestern University who co-authored the retracted study, told STAT. “[But], all research is imperfect.”

In the months after the retraction, Chris Ferguson, a psychologist at Stetson University and an editor at a different Springer Nature journal, Current Psychology, accepted a manuscript by Bailey that argued retractions are “increasingly a vehicle for scientific censorship,” as reported by RetractionWatch .

“This was a special issue on retractions, good and bad,” Ferguson told STAT. “I hoped Bailey’s article would open some insight into what it’s like to experience retraction, particularly one which may be motivated more by politics than by science.” Then, last month, the editors-in-chief of Current Psychology informed Bailey that they had decided to rescind the acceptance of the paper, prompting Ferguson to resign. “I couldn’t support a censorious effort, which mainly came from on high at Springer, not the editorial board,” Ferguson said.

When asked about the process behind the initial retraction and the fallout of the Current Psychology article, Chris Graf, the director of research integrity at Springer Nature, said that the publishing company’s position on research on the trans community “is the same as our approach to all research, that is, we support the publication of methodologically-sound research, conducted following established ethical standards, in which the conclusions are supported by the methods and data.”

The initial study is emblematic of an older genre of research that does not include representation by the community it is researching, according to experts on trans health.

“It’s not coincidental that a study like this would be published in [ The Archives of Sexual Behavior ],” says Jules Gill-Peterson, a historian at Johns Hopkins University. “This journal has a very long history of publishing incredibly moralizing, but totally peer-reviewed, in some cases, federally or privately funded research that basically studied small minority populations, treated them as mentally ill, and then prescribed forms of therapeutic intervention, if not to cure them, at least to modify their behavior, to make them more socially compliant.”

As examples, Gill-Peterson specifically cited a 1971 paper in the journal describing trans people as “individuals with extreme psychopathology,” another 1971 study on conversion therapy for trans people, and a 1984 paper that “speculates wildly based on a tiny sample that Black trans men are often psychotic because, in the view of the psychiatrists, Black women are so masculine in the U.S. that it would require a break with reality to still want to transition.” The editor-in-chief of Archives of Sexual Behavior and Springer Nature did not respond to a request for comment on the journal’s history.

Trans health experts say that biased studies can lend credibility to legislation limiting access to gender-affirming care. The paper to first popularize the idea of rapid onset gender dysphoria was amended with a correction after its initial publication in 2018 , and yet “it subsequently has taken on this huge life,” Gill-Peterson said, including being mentioned in several bills to limit access to gender affirming care and in publications like the New York Times . The retracted 2023 study, too, has been cited in government documents in several states, including Maryland and Missouri .

A changing climate for trans research

In this highly politicized environment, journals are grappling with their responsibilities toward how marginalized groups are represented.

“The scientific publishing industry cannot prevent a sociopolitical group from misusing science and misrepresenting science,” said Isabel Goldman, a former editor at Cell and DEI lead at Cell Press, who helped develop guidelines for reporting sex- and gender-based analyses at Elsevier. “But what I think we can do, and what I feel we actually have an ethical responsibility to do as stewards of the scientific literature, is when we see the science being misused is to say something.”

The trans rights movement has prompted a number of changes at journals and other scientific institutions. Goldman edited a special issue of Cell on sex and gender, and the new guidelines on reporting on sex- and gender-based analyses were implemented at more than 2,000 Elsevier journals. The guidelines call for collecting data on both gender identity and “sex assigned at birth.” The National Institutes of Health has also changed the language it uses to describe sex and gender. Since the agency’s guidelines on sex as a biological variable was introduced, its language has become more complex. Keuroghlian recently published the first editorial on transgender health research in the prestigious journal, Science, in its 150-year history .

“The good news is that the generation of researchers and scholars coming up really understands and prioritizes community engaged research and scholarship,” Keuroghlian said. “So we’re seeing that this will be less and less of a problem in the years ahead, as the culture within academia shifts towards respect for community voices.”

While research on trans communities is changing, Gill-Peterson also raises a more fundamental question about the purpose of research. “Why do we think people’s decision making and power, their right to control their own body, depends on peer-reviewed scholarship?” she asks. “I doubt most people think that their sense of the right to their own body flowed originally from a peer-reviewed scientific journal. I think most people would say that that’s something that belongs to them inexorably.”

About the reporting

STAT’s investigation is based on interviews with nearly 100 people around the country, including incarcerated patients and grieving families, prison officials, and legal and medical experts. Reporter Nicholas Florko also filed more than 225 public records requests and combed through thousands of pages of legal filings to tell these stories. His analysis of deaths in custody is based on a special data use agreement between STAT and the Department of Justice.

You can read more about the reporting for this project and the methodology behind our calculations.

The series is the culmination of a reporting fellowship sponsored by the Association of Health Care Journalists and supported by The Commonwealth Fund.

Anil Oza is STAT’s 2024-2025 Sharon Begley Science Reporting Fellow.

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Published Clinical Research Conducted at the Clinical Center

The NIH Clinical Center is the world's largest hospital entirely devoted to clinical research. It is a national resource that makes it possible to rapidly translate scientific observations and laboratory discoveries into new approaches for diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease.

Clinical research is at the heart of the Clinical Center's mission.

Over 1,600 clinical research studies are conducted at the NIH Clinical Center, including those focused on cancer, infectious diseases, blood disorders, heart disease, lung disease, alcoholism and drug abuse. Most of these studies are sponsored by the Institutes and Centers at NIH.

Here is a sample of abstracts from the clinical research conducted at the NIH Clinical Center and published in a peer-reviewed medical journal in 2018. Links to the full text and video formats are provided if available.

The National Institutes of Health Measure of Healing Experience of All Life Stressors (NIH-HEALS): Factor Analysis and Validation

Published in: PLOS ONE (December 2018)

The NIH-HEALS was developed and validated to better understand and measure psychosocial spiritual healing. Sometimes in the midst of significant life stressors including severe or life-threatening disease, psychosocial healing can be experienced.

Read the article .

MRI Robot for Prostate Focal Laser Ablation: An Ex Vito Study in Human Prostate

Published in: Journal of Imaging (November 2018)

Researchers have designed and integrated the hardware and software of a prototype robot that successfully demonstrated - in an ex vivo prostate tissue from a human cadaver - the potential to improve the clinical workflow, accuracy, and effectiveness of MRI-guided focal laser ablation of prostate cancer.

Performance of RGM Medium for the Isolation of Nontuberculous Mycobacteria from Respiratory Specimens from Non-Cystic Fibrosis Patients

Published in: Journal of Clinical Microbiology (November 2018)

RGM medium - an agar-based culture medium - provided a simple and rapid method to identify fast-growing nontuberculous mycobacteria in non-cystic fibrosis patients with chronic lung cancer.

On the Threshold of a New Analgesic: Shaping a Novel Treatment for Osteoarthritis Pain

Published in: ISAP Pain Research Forum (September 2018)

Alternatives to obtain a non-opioid analgesic for severe pain and chronic pain conditions are discussed. A promising development is resiniferatoxin, which can target peripheral nerve terminals through a local interventional approach versus systematic dosing to target the central nervous system.

Challenges in Pulmonary Hypertension: Controversies in Treating the Tip of the Iceberg. A Joint National Institutes of Health Clinical Center and Pulmonary Hypertension Association Symposium Report

Published in: American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine (July 2018)

The unmet need for innovative therapeutic approaches to pulmonary hypertension is apparent across World Health Organization patient subtypes. Improvements in the clinical phenotyping of pulmonary hypertension are a necessary first step to better utilize existing therapies and develop new ones.

A Proposal for a Rational Transfusion Strategy in Patients of European and North African Descent with Weak D Type 4.0 and 4.1 Phenotype

Published in: Blood Transfusion (March 2018)

Patients with weak D blood types 4.0 and 4.1 are so rarely associated with alloanti-D production that treatment guidelines should be changed to recommend D positive blood transfusions and no anti-D immunoglobulin prophylaxis.

A Role for Hydrocortisone Therapy in Septic Shock?

Published in: The New England Journal of Medicine (March 2018)

Eagerly awaited to provide definitive guidelines for or against the use and effects of corticosteroids in treating septic shock were the results of two landmark studies: the Adjunctive Corticosteroid Treatment in Critical Ill Patients with Septic Shock trial and the Activated Protein C and Corticosteroid for Human Septic Shock trial.

Transcriptional Changes in Dorsal Spinal Cord Persist After Surgical Incision Despite Preemptive Analgesia with Peripheral Resiniferatoxin

Published in: Anesthesiology (March 2018)

A new approach is presented for post-operative pain control using a naturally occurring plant molecule called resiniferatoxin (RTX) to block post-operative incisional pain. RTX is not an opioid and does not act in the brain but rather on the nerve endings in the skin.

Ethics and Practice of Trials within Cohorts: An Emerging Pragmatic Trial Design

Published in: Clinical Trials (February 2018)

Trials within Cohorts is a promising new pragmatic randomized control trial design that is increasingly used in various countries. Although the asymmetric procedures for the experimental versus control arm subjects can initially raise ethical concerns, it is ethically superior to previous post-randomization consent designs.

Spironolactone-Induced Degradation of the TFIIH Core Complex XPB Subunit Suppresses NF-KB and AP-1 Signalling

Published in: Cardiovascular Research (January 2018)

Spironolactone-induced breakdown of the protein XPB reduces the expression of pro-inflammatory genes. This previously unrecognized anti-inflammatory mechanism may be beneficial in diseases with vascular inflammation, including pulmonary arterial hypertension, the focus of an ongoing clinical trial at the NIH Clinical Center.

Read the article

Read more articles about research in the NIH Clinical Center in 2018.

African Journal of Biomedical Research Journal / African Journal of Biomedical Research / Vol. 27 No. 1 (2024): January Issue / Articles (function() { function async_load(){ var s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.async = true; var theUrl = 'https://www.journalquality.info/journalquality/ratings/2409-www-ajol-info-ajbr'; s.src = theUrl + ( theUrl.indexOf("?") >= 0 ? "&" : "?") + 'ref=' + encodeURIComponent(window.location.href); var embedder = document.getElementById('jpps-embedder-ajol-ajbr'); embedder.parentNode.insertBefore(s, embedder); } if (window.attachEvent) window.attachEvent('onload', async_load); else window.addEventListener('load', async_load, false); })();

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Main article content, a qualitative study of marital rape related perceptions among women in nigeria, a.o. ogunwale, o.s. olaleye, j.a. ogundairo.

Marital rape (MR) has long been categorized as a serious societal issue and public health problem which affects many women with several physically, emotional, psycho-social and reproductive consequences. Despite the reality and severity of MR, it has received limited attention in scholarly research in Nigeria since the existence of rape in intimate relationship is being doubted. This study, therefore, examined MR related perceptions among women in Oyo State, Nigeria. The study employed an exploratory qualitative approach to data collection. Data were collected using a pretested Focus Group Discussion (FGD) guide that explored the perceptions of various issues including the reality, seriousness, threat, health burden, determinants and reporting of MR. A total of twelve FGDs were conducted among 87 purposively selected ever-married women aged 18 – 60 years drawn from three major cities in Oyo State, Nigeria. Data were audio-taped, transcribed, and analysed thematically. Participants commonly condemned MR and considered it an aberration. Participants mentioned various consequences of MR including bodily injuries and depression. Perceived determinants of MR included women indulgence in extra-marital affairs, psychoactive-drugs use by husbands, turning down of husbands’ sexual request and economic dependence on husbands. It was perceived that women rarely report their experiences due to psychosocial factors including fear of stigmatization and self-blame. Multiple public health education interventions including advocacy and social support are needed to address the phenomenon

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BREAKING: Israel strikes Hezbollah targets, militant group’s leader calls device explosions an act of war

Ryan Routh was camped out for 12 hours and didn't have Trump in his line of sight when Secret Service fired at him

The man arrested in connection with an apparent attempt to assassinate Donald Trump is a former supporter who turned against the former president in part for foreign policy reasons and later traveled to Ukraine , where he made an ill-fated attempt to raise a volunteer force to fight the Russians.

The revelations about Ryan Wesley Routh emerged Monday, a day after a Secret Service agent rousted him from a hiding place at the West Palm Beach, Florida, golf course where Trump had been playing. Sheriff’s deputies later took him into custody.

Routh, it was revealed in court papers, had been camped out in a wooded area with a loaded SKS-style rifle near the course for 12 hours before he was spotted, raising new questions about whether the Secret Service was doing enough to protect a politician who had already survived one assassination attempt.

Trump was on the fifth fairway and not in Routh’s line of sight when the agent “engaged” the suspect, said Ronald Rowe, acting director of the Secret Service. Routh also never fired his weapon.

But Routh, 58, was equipped to kill, the criminal complaint said.

In addition to a digital camera and two bags, investigators found a loaded SKS-style 7.62x39 caliber rifle with a scope that had an “obliterated” serial number and a black plastic bag containing food likely to sustain Routh while he waited in the wooded area.

Routh was arraigned Monday at the Paul G. Rogers Federal Court House in West Palm Beach on charges of possession of a firearm by a convicted felon and possession of a firearm with an obliterated serial number.

The FBI has confirmed it is investigating “an apparent attempted assassination” of Trump on Sunday, but so far Routh has not been charged with trying to kill him.

Body camera video released by the Martin County Sheriff’s Office shows Routh wearing sunglasses and a pink T-shirt pulled over his head, exposing his midsection. He had been told to pull his shirt up to show he had no concealed weapons, Martin County Sheriff William Snyder told NBC News. He was arrested without incident.

The next day, Routh appeared unruffled, dressed in prison scrubs during his brief court appearance. He said he has a 25-year-old son, and he told the judge he has no money but owns two trucks in Hawaii, where he now lives, that are worth about $1,000 each.Represented by a public defender, Routh was given a Sept. 23 return court date and was then sent back to jail.

There was no discussion of a possible motive. In a self-published book, Routh said he voted for Trump in 2016 and came to regret it after Trump made what he called a “tremendous blunder” in 2018 and withdrew the U.S. from the Iran nuclear deal.

“I must take part of the blame,” he wrote in “Ukraine’s Unwinnable War: The Fatal Flaw of Democracy, World Abandonment and the Global Citizen-Taiwan, Afghanistan, North Korea and the end of Humanity,” which was published last year. He added that Trump “ended up being brainless, but I am man enough to say that I misjudged and made a terrible mistake and Iran I apologize.”

“You are free to assassinate Trump as well as me for that error in judgement and the dismantling of the deal,” Routh wrote.

Then he added, “No one here in the U.S. seems to have the balls to put natural selection to work or even unnatural selection.”

Federal investigators released a criminal complaint that said Routh had been staking out Trump International Golf Club for about 12 hours, starting at 1:59 a.m. Sunday, until 1:31 p.m. Sunday, when a Secret Service agent walking the perimeter saw what appeared to be a rifle poking out of a tree line.

The agent, the complaint says, fired in the direction of the rifle and flushed out a man, later identified as Routh, who was seen getting into a Nissan SUV and driving away, according to a witness. Officers located the vehicle and pulled Routh over on Interstate 95 less than an hour later, and the witness who saw him leaving the golf course identified him.

Trump survived an attempted assassination in July when a bullet grazed one of his ears while he was addressing supporters at a rally in Butler, Pennsylvania. The shooter, Thomas Matthew Crooks, 20, was killed, and so far investigators have not divulged a motive.

Routh has, of late, been living in a small town outside Honolulu with his son, according to public records and statements made in court. But he had spent most of his life in Greensboro, North Carolina, where he ran a roofing business, according to public records. Records show he had more than 100 run-ins with the law but never did any time.

In 2002, court records show, Routh was convicted of illegally possessing a machine gun.

Court records for a person named Ryan Routh also show a 2003 divorce, along with multiple civil judgments after contractors and individuals sued a roofing company he helped run.

Routh still has kin in Greensboro, according to a public records search. His relatives were reluctant to speak with reporters Monday.

A former neighbor, Kim Mungo, said Routh lived next door to her for 18 years and never brought up politics or Ukraine with her. She described him as “gorgeous” and said the house belonged to his ex-wife.

Mungo said she had been watching over the house while Routh was moving permanently to Hawaii.

Asked whether she ever saw weapons in the residence, Mungo said she had seen some rifles — and one very large animal.

Routh was active on social media. In 2020, he posted on Twitter (now X) that he had supported Trump in 2016 but was deeply disappointed in him. He also used X to signal his support for Sen. Bernie Sanders, I-Vt., who was then running for the Democratic presidential nomination. And like Trump, he disparaged President Joe Biden as “Sleepy Joe.”

While he was living in Hawaii, Routh made several contributions, from $1 to $25, to the Democratic fundraising platform ActBlue in 2019 and 2020, according to Federal Election Commission records.

In his 291-page tome, Routh bristled at being pinned down as a political partisan.

“I get so tired of people asking me if I am a Democrat or Republican as I refuse to be put into a category and I must always answer independant,” he wrote.

Routh disparaged Trump as a “fool” and a “buffoon,” but he credited him for reaching out to North Korean leader Kim Jong Un.

Biden “has yet to be man enough to make that phone call and do the right thing,” Routh wrote.

Routh was also a vocal supporter of Ukraine and visited it in 2022. That summer, NBC News spoke with Routh, who said in a message that the West’s “limited response” to the Russia-Ukraine war was “extremely disappointing” and called the moment “an indictment of the entire human race.” There was never any formal interview, and Routh’s comments were not included in NBC News’ coverage of the war.

In an interview with Newsweek Romania in 2022 , Routh said he had volunteered to fight for the International Legion for the Defense of Ukraine but was turned down because of his age and lack of combat experience.

Instead, Routh claimed, he opted to help with military recruitment efforts in Kyiv. A representative of the International Legion told NBC News on Monday that Routh never served in its military.

In his book, Routh appeared to be unhappy with how the government in Kyiv treats foreigners who joined its fight against Russia.

“Sadly Ukraine does not roll out the red carpet for foreign fighters and volunteers, nor do they celebrate their sacrifices and help,” he wrote.

Corky Siemaszko is a senior reporter for NBC News Digital.

Open access
Published: 14 September 2024

Mapping the extent of the literature and psychometric properties for the Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE) in community-dwelling older adults: a scoping review

Cassandra D’Amore 1 na1 ,
Lexie Lajambe 1 na1 ,
Noah Bush 1 ,
Sydney Hiltz 1 ,
Justin Laforest 1 ,
Isabella Viel 1 ,
Qiukui Hao 1 &
Marla Beauchamp 1

BMC Geriatrics volume 24 , Article number: 761 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Identifying valid and accessible tools for monitoring and improving physical activity levels is essential for promoting functional ability and healthy aging. The Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE) is a commonly used and recommended self-report measure of physical activity in older adults. The objective of this scoping review was to map the nature and extent to which the PASE has been used in the literature on community-dwelling older adults, including the evidence for its psychometric properties.

Seven electronic databases (MEDLINE (Ovid), Embase (Ovid), AMED (Ovid), Emcare (Ovid), CINAHL (EBSCO), Ageline (EBSCO)) were searched from inception to January 25, 2023. Studies were included if physical activity was part of the aim(s) and measured using the PASE, participants had a mean age of 60 years or older and lived in the community, and papers were peer-reviewed journal articles published in English. Pairs of independent reviewers screened abstracts, full-texts, and extracted data. Where possible, weighted mean PASE scores were calculated for different subgroups based on age, sex, and clinical population.

From 4,124 studies screened, 232 articles from 35 countries met the inclusion criteria. Most studies were cross-sectional (60.78%), completed in high-income countries (86.4%) and in North America (49.57%). A variety of clinical conditions were included ( n = 21), with the most common populations being osteoarthritis ( n = 13), Parkinson’s disease ( n = 11), and cognitive impairment ( n = 7). Psychometric properties of ten versions of the PASE were found. All versions demonstrated acceptable test-retest reliability. Evidence for construct validity showed moderate correlations with self-reported physical activity, fair to moderate with accelerometry derived activity and fair relationships with physical function and self-reported health. Pooled means were reported in graphs and forest plots for males, females, age groups, and several clinical populations.

The PASE was widely used in a variety of clinical populations and geographical locations. The PASE has been culturally adapted to several populations and evaluated for its reliability and convergent validity; however, further research is required to examine responsiveness and predictive validity. Researchers can use the weighted mean PASE scores presented in this study to help interpret PASE scores in similar populations.

OSF registration

osf.io/7bvhx

Peer Review reports

A pressing issue in the current healthcare system is the growing burden of chronic disease and multimorbidity associated with the world’s aging population [ 1 , 2 ]. There is an increasing number of older adults who require home care or housing options to support additional needs, including retirement homes, assisted living, or long-term care facilities [ 1 ]. Maintaining functional ability in later adulthood is a key public health priority and the promotion of physical activity (PA) is a central strategy for healthy aging initiatives [ 3 ]. Regular participation in PA has been shown to improve physical function, reduce impairments, promote independent living, and improve quality of life in older adults [ 4 ]. Physical activity can assist in maintaining cardiovascular, metabolic, and cognitive function; all of which reduce the risk of multimorbidity [ 5 , 6 , 7 ].

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines PA as “any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure” [ 8 ]. A growing body of evidence has demonstrated the importance of overall activity levels, including lighter intensity activities [ 9 ]. In addition to recommendations for moderate to vigorous activities, PA guidelines encourage changes in time allocation from sitting activities to light intensity activities, including standing [ 8 , 10 ]. Given the inclinations for lighter intensity activities in older ages (e.g., walking, gardening), clinicians and researchers must have tools to accurately assess and monitor the full spectrum of physical activities in this population.

Direct measures of PA (e.g., pedometers, accelerometers, and the gold standard of the doubly labelled water method) [ 11 ] can capture the full spectrum of activities. However, these measures can be more expensive, rely on equipment availability, and place a greater burden on participants [ 5 ]. Alternatively, self-report measures can be a low-cost, feasible tool for assessing and monitoring activity levels [ 12 ]. While not all questionnaires capture the same breadth of activities, the Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE) has been recommended for use in older adults for its inclusion of lighter intensity activities [ 5 ]. The PASE was designed to consider a greater number of activity domains more representative of the typical activities undertaken by older adults (e.g., gardening and household tasks) [ 13 ]. The questionnaire was developed for older adults (≥ 65), takes approximately 10 min to complete (10 questions), and asks participants to recall their activity over the last 7-days [ 13 , 14 ]. Activity types include sitting, walking, sport/recreation, exercise, occupational, and household [ 13 ]. A total score for PA can be calculated using these answers and the predetermined weights associated with each activity [ 13 ]. The PASE has been described as a suitable PA outcome measure for older adults who have multiple chronic conditions and is a recommended for measuring total PA in older adults based on evidence for its reliability and validity compared to other questionnaires [ 12 ].

To date, there has not been a comprehensive review of the populations and settings in which the PASE has been used. Rather, the literature on the PASE has focused on comparing the psychometric properties of multiple self-report measures of PA for specific populations. For example, Sattler et al. (2020) explored PA measures in healthy older adults and Garnett et al. (2019) in community-dwelling older adults with multiple chronic conditions. As part of their syntheses of all self-report PA measures both included a summary on the PASE, of ten and seven studies respectively [ 5 , 12 ]. As both these reviews recommend the use of the PASE, a more thorough exploration of the PASE with broader criteria is warranted. Further, the extent of the literature on its psychometric properties has not been thoroughly investigated. Therefore, the purpose of this scoping review was to map the nature and extent of the literature on the PASE in older populations (mean age 60) and to consolidate knowledge about the characteristics of studies using the PASE as an outcome measure, including available data on its psychometric properties. Our research questions were as follows:

To what extent has the PASE been used in older populations (e.g., number of studies, PASE administration, outcome operationalization from the PASE)?

What are the characteristics of studies that have used the PASE as an outcome measure (e.g., locations, sample characteristics, study designs)?

What is the nature and extent of the literature on the psychometric properties of the PASE in older populations (e.g., reliability, validity, cultural translation)?

The JBI guidelines for scoping reviews were followed in addition to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines (checklist available in Additional file 1 Table A1) [ 15 , 16 ]. This review protocol was registered with Open Science Framework ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/7BVHX ).

Search strategy

A broad search strategy was created with the assistance of a research librarian at the Health Sciences Library at McMaster University using the following key terms: “Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly”, “PASE”, “physical activity profile”, and “older”. Unique search strategies were developed for the following electronic databases: MEDLINE (Ovid), Embase (Ovid), Allied and Complementary Medicine Database (AMED; Ovid), Emcare (Ovid), CINAHL (EBSCO), Ageline (EBSCO). Databases were searched from inception to January 25 th , 2023. Backward citation searching was performed in Web of Science (Clarivate) for the original PASE article by Washburn and colleagues [ 13 ]. The complete search strategy for all databases is available in Additional file 1 Table A2. Reference lists of relevant systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and scoping reviews were screened and hand searched for additional articles.

Inclusion/exclusion criteria

To be included in this review studies must have populations consisting of older adults with a mean age greater than or equal to 60 years in line with the United Nations definition of older adults [ 17 ]. No restrictions were placed on sex, race or cultural background.

The overarching concept for this scoping review was the PASE; this included the original version and translated versions. Therefore, to be included studies must have incorporated PA in their aims and present results from the administration of the PASE. This criterion was further refined to specify that PASE must be included as a primary or secondary outcome (i.e., not just a covariate). The outcomes of interest to this review were the characteristics of the studies (e.g., cross-sectional vs prospective) and populations the PASE was used in (e.g., country, clinical populations, sex), mean total scores of the PASE, how the PASE was used (e.g., to look at relationships with PA, to determine intervention efficacy), as well as psychometric properties that have been evaluated.

Studies from any geographic location were included. After initial full-text screening the inclusion criteria was further refined to improve heterogeneity of included studies and ensure feasibility of the project due to the large number of results. The setting was restricted to designated community-dwelling populations which reflects the original context the PASE was designed in [ 13 ].

Studies were excluded if they were not written in English or if they were conference abstracts, presentations, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, scoping reviews, evidence maps, rapid reviews, literature reviews, narrative reviews, or critical reviews. Reviews were flagged and screened for additional citations.

Study selection

Results from the comprehensive literature search were organized in Endnote 20 (Clarivate, Philadelphia, USA) and uploaded to Covidence systematic review software (Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia) for screening. Duplicated studies were removed using both programs prior to screening and any remaining were removed by hand. Prior to each phase of screening the reviewer team conducted pilot screening to improve agreement. For title and abstracts screening and full-text eligibility two independent reviewers (NB, LL, JL, IV, SH, and CD) confirmed the predetermined eligibility criteria. Due to the volume of full-text screening authors were not contacted for further details; where information for a given eligibility criteria was not reported or unclear the paper was excluded. Any disagreements during the abstract or the full-text review process were resolved by either consensus or arbitration by a third reviewer when necessary.

Data extraction and analysis

Data was extracted from the studies verbatim by two or more independent reviewers (NB, LL, JL, IV, SH, and CD). Modifications to the initial data extraction table made during the piloting process included the removal of details not necessary in a scoping review (e.g., funding sources, conflicts of interest) and the aims of this study (e.g., setting, recruitment methods). Additionally, separate columns were added to distinguish values calculated or extrapolated by reviewers versus authors (e.g., mean PASE scores, income classification). The following descriptive data was extracted: study details (geographical location, outcome measures, study design), population description (number of participants, mean age, sex, clinical population), PASE version and administration method, how the PASE was reported (e.g., mean vs categorical, subcategories vs full questionnaire), and psychometric properties reported.

Data was summarized in a descriptive manner through counts and percentages in tabular presentation. Weighted means and variances were calculated for total PASE scores across identified subgroups (sex, age, and clinical populations) where appropriate using the ‘metamean’ package in RStudio Team (R version 4.2.2, 2020, PBC, Boston, MA). In studies that reported only subgroup mean total PASE score or age, the authors combined the subgroup data using methods recommended in the Cochrane handbook [ 18 ]. Where possible, studies that provided median scores were converted to mean scores using the methodology developed by Wan et al. [ 19 ]. Studies that did not provide sufficient information for either transformation were omitted from some review syntheses. Studies were grouped by income based on the World Bank ratings from 2023 [ 20 ].

The database search produced 6,372 articles and hand searching citations produced another 24 articles for a total of 6,396. A total of 886 studies were assessed for full-text eligibility and 536 articles were found to use the PASE in older adults, 232 of which met all inclusion criteria (i.e., community-dwelling and the PASE was a primary/secondary outcome). An overview of the screening process can be found in PRISMA-ScR flow diagram (Fig. 1 ), and reasons for full-text study exclusions can be found in Additional file 2 Table A2.

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flow diagram. Searches run on January 25 th , 2023

Summary of PASE use

The PASE was used for a variety of reasons with the most common being to explore the effect of PA on a health outcome(s) (e.g., an association of PA type with all-cause mortality) [ 21 ], and the relationship of a determinant with PA (e.g., the association between walkability and walking time) [ 22 ]. Almost all the studies used the PASE in its entirety (96.55%). The studies that used partial aspects of PASE often focused on leisure time PA (e.g., walking, sport/recreation, and exercise) [ 23 , 24 , 25 ], and two studies focused on walking exclusively [ 26 , 27 ]. Most authors (93.97%) used total PASE scores (i.e., used provided activity weights). Nineteen studies (8.19%) included a measure other than central tendency for total PASE score (e.g., dichotomous, tertiles, quartiles, quintiles). Eleven studies did not use the PASE score but instead operationalized PA using different pieces of the PASE (e.g., frequency, time). Details on the use of PASE are summarized in Table 1 .

The PASE was primarily delivered in person (69.40%) followed by mail (11.21%); 45 studies were either unclear or did not report how the PASE was administered to participants. A total of 15 different versions or languages were reported; the most common version used was English (63.79%). Six studies did not report which version or language the PASE was delivered in. In many cases, only the seminal paper on the English version by Washburn et al. was cited, with no further clarification of the version or modifications made, including several papers from countries where the primary language is not English ( n = 29).

Study characteristics

A summary of the study characteristics can be found in Table 2 . The PASE was used throughout the world; however, nearly half of the studies were completed in North America (49.57%). In total, studies from 35 different countries were included in this review; the most common countries outside of North America included China ( n = 20), Australia ( n = 19), and Japan ( n = 10). Most studies were conducted in high-income countries (86.64%). The mean age for studies ranged from 60.00 [ 28 ] to 84.40 [ 29 ] with the majority (43.10%) falling between 70–74 years old. Most studies included mixed sex samples ( n = 184), with only 17 looking at females and 22 at males. Fifty-three studies looked specifically at 21 clinical conditions (e.g., musculoskeletal, cognitive impairment, and cardiorespiratory). The 232 studies of community-dwelling older adults included 171,206 participants, with individual study samples ranging from 8 [ 30 ] to 14,881 [ 31 ]. Studies were published between 1993 [ 13 ] and 2023 [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ]. The PASE was used in a variety of study designs, including cross-sectional studies (60.78%), prospective studies (25.43%), and experimental (12.07%).

Where possible, weighted means for different subgroups were summarised based on age, sex, and clinical population. Studies with a mean age between 60–64 years had the highest mean PASE scores (159.53 (95% CI 146.58, 172.49)) and studies with a mean age over 80 years old had the lowest mean PASE scores (67.17 (95% CI 51.95, 82.39)) (Fig. 2 , Forest plots available in Additional file 1 Figure B1-B5). Figure 3 presents forest plots for the combined total mean PASE score for female only studies ( n = 13) 123.99 (95% CI 108.09, 139.88) [ 26 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 ] and male only studies ( n = 14) 136.27 (95% CI 122.46, 150.09) [ 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 ]. Based on data availability, pooled means were created for the following clinical populations: cancer ( n = 2) [ 28 , 66 ], Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) ( n = 2) [ 67 , 68 ], cognitive impairment ( n = 6) [ 33 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ], Diabetes ( n = 3) [ 74 , 75 , 76 ], Osteoarthritis ( n = 12) [ 46 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 ], and Parkinson’s disease (PD) ( n = 10) [ 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 ]. Forest plots for clinical populations are available in Additional file 1 Figure B6.

Pooled Mean PASE scores by age groups

Pooled Mean PASE score forest plots for females(1) and males(2)

Psychometric properties of the PASE

Several papers evaluated the psychometric properties of the original PASE ( n = 5) along with a number of validation studies ( n = 14) for different translations and clinical populations (acute coronary event [ 98 ], COPD [ 68 ], Cancer [ 28 , 66 ], and Parkinson’s disease [ 89 ]). In total, ten different versions of the PASE were assessed for reliability and/or validity in community-dwelling older adults, including: English ( n = 5) [ 13 , 14 , 66 , 98 , 99 ], Malay ( n = 2) [ 100 , 101 ], Arabic ( n = 1) [ 102 ], Chinese ( n = 2) [ 68 , 103 ], Italian ( n = 1) [ 104 ], Norwegian ( n = 1) [ 105 ], Persian ( n = 1) [ 106 ], Polish ( n = 1) [ 107 ], Taiwanese ( n = 2) [ 28 , 108 ], Turkish ( n = 1) [ 109 ], and two studies did not report the version [ 65 , 89 ].

Sixteen studies reported on the test-retest reliability of the PASE, time frames ranging from 3 days [ 99 , 105 ] to 3–7 weeks [ 13 ] and sample sizes ranging from 18 [ 98 ] to 349 [ 100 ] (details available in Table 3 ). Across all versions of the PASE 12 studies reporting ICCs for the total score, only two fell below acceptable limits proposed in the COSMIN guidelines [ 110 ] (Malay version 0.49 (95% CI 0.37, 0.59) [ 100 ] and version NR 0.66 (95% CI 0.46–0.71) [ 89 ]). However, the majority of values were 0.90 and above ( n = 8). Internal consistency was examined in seven versions and all Cronbach alpha’s fell within an acceptable range (0.70 (Arabic and Persian subcategory lowest) to 0.82 (Italian total score)). Only four studies examined measurement error. Alqarni et al. reported the minimal detectable change (MDC95) for PASE subcategories (9.0–23.6) [ 102 ] of the Arabic version and MDC95 for total scores were provided for the Chinese version (19.21) [ 68 ] and the Polish version (38.39) [ 107 ]. Two studies also included standard errors of measurement for the PASE total score (Chinese version 6.93 [ 68 ] and NR version 30.00 [ 89 ]).

Four studies stated they were exploring criterion validity; however, each used a different measurement tool as their gold standard for PA: pedometer (walking steps and energy expenditure) [ 68 ], Actigraph (activity counts/minutes) [ 28 ], International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) [ 109 ], doubly labeled water (total energy expenditure, energy expenditure/resting metabolic rate) and VO2max [ 65 ]. The PASE was significantly correlated to all but the doubly labelled water outcomes and VO2max [ 65 ]. During the development of the PASE Washburn et al. assessed the three aspects content validity by asking participants ( n = 36) about the appropriateness of the items, the completeness (i.e., comprehensiveness), and the comprehensibility; results were used to inform the final version of the PASE [ 13 ]. Three additional studies assessed and reported acceptable content validity for the PASE across three different clinical groups: acute coronary events (English) [ 98 ], COPD (Chinese) [ 68 ], and cancer survivors (Taiwanese) [ 28 ]. Only the English version had responsiveness and minimal important difference (MID) reported and this was in a sample of individuals with lung cancer [ 66 ].

Construct validity was the most commonly assessed form of validity, predominantly exploring convergent validity (details available in Table 4 ). Physical function performance measures and self-report questionnaires were commonly cited, and relationships ranged from fair to moderate, including the Timed Up and Go ( r = -0.45 to r = -0.69) [ 102 , 106 , 107 ], Berg Balance ( r = 0.20 to r = 0.82) [ 14 , 104 , 107 ], and the physical function section of the Short Form-36 ( r = 0.53 to r = 0.58) [ 68 , 103 , 109 ]. Muscle strength was another common construct with poor to fair correlations; specifically, grip strength ( r = 0.29 to r = 0.43) [ 13 , 68 , 100 , 102 , 103 ], and lower limb strength ( r = 0.18 to r = 0.37) [ 13 , 66 , 103 ]. There were also several self-report measures examining general health ( r = -0.12 to r = 0.44) [ 13 , 68 , 98 , 100 , 103 ] and activities of daily living ( r = 0.10 to r = 0.78) [ 100 , 106 ]. The PASE demonstrated moderate correlations with the IPAQ ( r = 0.65 to r = 0.74) [ 68 , 107 , 109 ]. Five studies compared the PASE to a direct measure of PA (e.g., accelerometers and pedometers), including outcomes such as steps per day ( r = 0.39 to r = 0.61) [ 66 , 68 , 101 ] and activity counts ( r = 0.43 to r = 0.64) with fair to moderate correlations [ 28 , 99 , 101 ]. Only Bonnefoy et al. used the gold standard doubly labelled water, and they found no significant correlations [ 65 ].

To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first review to provide a comprehensive summary of the use of the PASE in community-dwelling older adults. The PASE has been used extensively to measure PA in older adults (536 primary papers before restricting to community-dwelling settings); however, it was mainly used in high-income countries with cross-sectional research designs. While strong evidence was summarized supporting test-retest reliability and construct validity, there was a paucity of evidence examining the PASE’s responsiveness, important change thresholds, and predictive validity. In addition, we have presented pooled means for different age groups and clinical populations to provide preliminary reference values to improve interpretations of total scores.

The PASE has been used extensively in community-dwelling older adults; 171,206 participants from 35 countries were included in this review. The PASE was developed in the United States, which is reflected in the greater uptake in North America and high-income countries [ 13 ]. However, the PASE has been used across five continents and in some middle-income countries ( n = 8). Importantly, we have seen the validation of several translated versions including Arabic, Chinese, Malay, Persian, and Turkish. Furthermore, the application of the PASE to clinical and disease-specific populations has also occurred, and the high content validity in these populations is promising. The use of the PASE in persons with chronic conditions has been supported previously based on feasibility and psychometric properties [ 5 ]. While the literature summarized is extensive, more is available outside of community-dwelling populations not captured in this review, including further translations and validations (e.g., Nigerian translation) [ 111 ]. Our results show the PASE is a commonly used measure of worldwide but has been used sparingly in countries outside of North America and in lower-income countries. Decreasing the heterogeneity in how PA is measured is imperative for meaningful comparisons and data harmonization. Large numbers of self-report PA measures already exist, and previous work has recommended using these rather than creating more [ 12 , 112 ]. This review shows the large uptake of the PASE, presenting a suitable choice for research on older adults. However, it is important that psychometric measures are assessed for the population of interest.

Psychometric properties are essential for outcome measures to ensure their validity, reliability, and interpretability. Of the 232 studies included, 19 studies aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the PASE in community-dwelling older adults. According to COSMIN, most studies (12/15) found acceptable test-retest reliability for the PASE total score. However, there was variability between studies that was more pronounced between subcategories of activity types (e.g., ICC subcategory values 0.56–0.94 [ 99 ], 0.76–0.93 [ 106 ], 0.78–0.99 [ 107 ]), which may suggest more variation week to week in single activity types and less for overall activity. There was a paucity of evidence on measurement error, including MDC and standard error of measurement. Of the four studies reporting in this area, one only provided values for activity subcategories, not total score [ 102 ], and two were for clinical populations (COPD and Parkinson’s disease). The varying populations may explain the large difference in values (e.g., MDC95 = 38.4 (general) vs MDC95 = 19.2(COPD); and SEM = 30 (PD) vs SEM = 6.9 (COPD)). Establishing the minimal detectable change values is essential for ensuring differences are real and not from measurement error. In addition, none of the included studies reported minimal clinically important differences (MCID), another important parameter for interpreting change in score. This paucity of evidence must be addressed across versions in community-dwelling older adults to support further use and interpretability of the PASE.

The PASE was validated in community-dwelling older adults in ten different languages. Content validity is regarded as the most important psychometric measurement property [ 113 ]; however, other than the sentinel paper, only three included studies reported on the relevance, comprehensiveness, and comprehensibility [ 28 , 68 , 98 ]. As presented in these papers, PA appears to be influenced by cultural/societal norms, highlighting the importance and continued need to verify the content validity of PA questionnaires when validating in new populations [ 28 ]. Fair to moderate relationships between the PASE and performance-based measures of physical function and mobility, strength, and health outcomes were regularly reported for construct validity. Four studies stated they examined criterion validity, which compares the PASE score to the gold standard of the same construct. However, only one study used the commonly regarded gold standard of PA doubly labelled water and did not find a significant relationship [ 65 ]. The remaining three studies found moderate correlations (> 0.60) using more accessible measures of PA: a pedometer [ 68 ], accelerometer [ 28 ], and a questionnaire [ 109 ]. The PASE-Polish [ 107 ] demonstrated the highest correlation at 0.74 with the IPAQ, which has been validated in 12 different countries, including low-income countries and rural samples [ 114 ]. The IPAQ was the only PA questionnaire reported, and only two other studies compared direct measures of PA (i.e., accelerometers). The correlations with the IPAQ ranged from 0.65–0.74, whereas correlations with direct measures tended to be lower and more variable (e.g., activity counts 0.43–64, walking steps 0.39–0.61). Several PASE versions did not contain a measure of PA in their validity analysis ( n = 3). Further studies investigating these metrics using a wider variety of measures of PA (e.g., different questionnaires and more direct measures) are needed to clarify these relationships.

No studies reported on longitudinal validity, demonstrating a great need for studies to evaluate the PASE’s predictive validity for important health outcomes in community-dwelling populations across the globe. Despite almost 20 studies using the PASE to measure change in PA, responsiveness, which is critical for ensuring the PASE can accurately reflect change over time, has not been reported in any of the included studies. Therefore, research is needed to explore the predictive validity and responsiveness of the PASE to inform whether the PASE can be used to predict important health outcomes (e.g., future falls, hospitalization) and change in PA (e.g., over time or through intervention) for community-dwelling older adults.

A noteworthy finding of this review was the reporting of pooled means by age, sex, and clinical population. Pooled PASE scores decreased with increasing age groups from < 65 (159.53 (95% CI 146.58, 172.49)) to the 80 years and older group (67.17 (95% CI 51.95, 82.39)). In general, this is consistent with the literature where levels of PA progressively decrease with age for both men and women [ 115 , 116 ]. Some clinical populations appeared to have greater decreases in PA than others (e.g., cognitive impairment 91.11 (95% CI 72.77, 109.40) vs osteoarthritis 129.53 (95% CI 110.40, 148.65)). Clinical groups also appear to be important in addition to age for PA level; for example, the studies in the cognitive impairment group were mostly younger age groups (5/6 less than 80 years old), but the mean PASE score was closer to the two oldest age groups. The provided reference data for age, sex, and clinical population can be used to improve the interpretability of PASE scores among similar populations of community-dwelling older adults. However, future research creating normative values for the PASE could further improve interpretability and uptake of this questionnaire.

There are several limitations of this scoping review that should be acknowledged. First, several eligibility criteria were placed on this review, resulting in papers related to the PASE being excluded. Specifically, studies were restricted to the English language, age of 60 years or older, and community-dwelling settings. These decisions were made for feasibility and to reflect the original PASE; however, they have limited our understanding of how far the PASE has been applied in different populations. With the robust search strategy reviewed by a health research librarian, we are confident that the summarized evidence accurately reflects the current literature for community-dwelling older adults. A second limitation is that only published studies were included, and grey literature was not considered, which opens the possibility that new and emerging research regarding the PASE was missed. Finally, several studies used data from the same databases/studies, resulting in the same or overlapping samples; we did not extract the information necessary to tease this apart. Therefore, pooled means will be biased toward samples included more than once. In addition, pooled mean PASE scores in clinical populations with only two studies should be interpreted cautiously due to limited sample sizes.

This review has identified areas for future consideration, including further expanding the validation of the PASE to middle- and low-income countries. A systematic review focused on the psychometric properties of the PASE with no setting restrictions may provide a valuable resource for researchers. Future investigations are needed on psychometric properties of the PASE, including thresholds of important change, responsiveness, and predictive validity for all versions of the PASE, as well as data on psychometric properties in specific clinical populations.

This review found that the PASE is a widely used PA measure among community-dwelling older adults, with evidence supporting its test-retest reliability and construct validity. The widespread use of a questionnaire increases the ability for data harmonization across studies and improves the ability to compare between studies. Further research is warranted to investigate the PASE’s ability to detect meaningful change (i.e., MDC, MCID) along with predictive validity and responsiveness. Pooled mean total PASE scores reported in this review can provide preliminary reference values for different age groups and clinical populations to help improve the interpretability of PASE scores until normative values are established.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files].

Abbreviations

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

International Physical Activity Questionnaire - Short Form

Physical activity

Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly

Parkinson’s Disease

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews

Minimal clinical important difference

Minimal detectable change

Intraclass correlation coefficient

Interquartile range

Standard deviation

Standard error of measurement

Timed Up and Go

World Health Organization

Not reported

Confidence Interval

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Ms. Neera Bhatnagar, a librarian at Health Sciences Library at McMaster University, for guiding the authors in the development of the search strategy.

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Cassandra D’Amore, Lexie Lajambe, Noah Bush, Sydney Hiltz, Justin Laforest, Isabella Viel, Qiukui Hao & Marla Beauchamp

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MB and CD conceptualized the research question; LL, NB, SH, JL, IV in consultation with Ms Bhatnagar and CD, QH, and MB created protocol and search strategies. NB, LL, SH, JL, IV and CD carried out screening and extracting papers. JL, CD and QH carried out analyses and all authors contributed to the final manuscript.

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Additional file 1. additional methods and results details., additional file 2. full list of included and excluded studies., additional file 3. data extraction sheet., rights and permissions.

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D’Amore, C., Lajambe, L., Bush, N. et al. Mapping the extent of the literature and psychometric properties for the Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE) in community-dwelling older adults: a scoping review. BMC Geriatr 24 , 761 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-024-05332-3

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MRI Robot for Prostate Focal Laser Ablation: An Ex Vito Study in Human Prostate. Published in: Journal of Imaging (November 2018) Researchers have designed and integrated the hardware and software of a prototype robot that successfully demonstrated - in an ex vivo prostate tissue from a human cadaver - the potential to improve the clinical workflow, accuracy, and effectiveness of MRI-guided ...
African Journal of Biomedical Research
Marital rape (MR) has long been categorized as a serious societal issue and public health problem which affects many women with several physically, emotional, psycho-social and reproductive consequences. Despite the reality and severity of MR, it has received limited attention in scholarly research in Nigeria since the existence of rape in intimate relationship is being doubted.
Ryan Routh was camped out for 12 hours and didn't have Trump in his
In a self-published book, Routh wrote that he had been a supporter of Trump in 2016 but came to regret it two years later when Trump withdrew the U.S. from the Iran nuclear deal.
Mapping the extent of the literature and psychometric properties for
Background Identifying valid and accessible tools for monitoring and improving physical activity levels is essential for promoting functional ability and healthy aging. The Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE) is a commonly used and recommended self-report measure of physical activity in older adults. The objective of this scoping review was to map the nature and extent to which the ...

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