essay for social psychology

Module 1: Introduction to Social Psychology

Module Overview                              

In our first module we will examine the field of social psychology and how it relates to personality psychology and differs from sociology by clarifying the level of analysis and differences in methods used. We will then embark upon a historical journey to see where the field has come from and where it is going. Finally, we will examine professional societies and journals as they relate to social psychology and share links to blogs and newsfeeds on current research in this subfield.

Module Outline

1.1. What is Social Psychology?

1.2. social psychology…then, 1.3. social psychology…now, 1.4. connecting with other social psychologists.

Module Learning Outcomes

• Clarify similarities and differences between social psychology, personality psychology, and sociology.
• Outline the history of social psychology.
• Describe the status of the subfield today….and in the future.
• Identify ways in which social psychologists can connect with one another.

Section Learning Objectives

• Define psychology and deconstruct the definition.
• Define social.
• Contrast social psychology and sociology.
• Clarify how social and personality psychology intersect.
• Describe general methods used by social psychologists.
• Distinguish between basic and applied science.
• Compare and contrast how social psychology, sociology, and personality psychology tackle the same general issue by evaluating empirical articles from a journal in each field.

1.1.1. Defining Terms

Our discussion of social psychology will start by defining a few key terms, or what social and psychology mean separately. We will tackle the latter, then the former, and then put it all together. First up, the latter. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.  Yes, that is correct. Psychology is scientific . Psychology utilizes the same scientific process and methods used by disciplines such as biology and chemistry. We will discuss this in more detail in Module 2 so please just keep this in the back of your mind for now. Second, it is the study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology desires to not only understand why people engage in the behavior that they do, but also how. What is going on in the brain to control the movement of our arms and legs when running downfield to catch the game winning touchdown, what affects the words we choose to say when madly in love, how do we interpret an event as benign or a threat when a loud sound is heard, and what makes an individual view another group in less than favorable terms? These are just a few of the questions that we ask as psychologists.

Now to the former – social. According to Oxford Dictionaries online, social is defined as relating to society or its organization. The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines it as “tending to form cooperative and interdependent relationships with others” ( https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/social ). Another form of the word implies a desire to be around people such as being a social butterfly. Really, both forms of the word are useful for the discussion to come in this textbook.

We now address their combination. Social psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes as they relate to how people interact with, or relate to, others. Our starting point is on the person, and not society. The latter is the focus of the field called sociology , or the study of society or groups, both large and small. According to the American Sociological Association ( http://www.asanet.org/ ), sociology is a social science which involves studying the social lives of people, groups, and societies; studying our behavior as social beings; scientifically investigating social aggregations; and is “an overarching unification of all studies of humankind, including history, psychology, and economics.”

In contrast, the Society for Personality and Social Psychology (Division 8 of the American Psychological Association; https://www.apa.org/about/division/div8.aspx ; SPSP) defines social psychology as the “scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.” The study of social psychology occurs in a social context meaning the individual as they relate to others and is affected by others.

Personality and social psychology go hand-in-hand and so we should define personality psychology too. Simply, personality psychology is the scientific study of individual differences in people’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior, and how these come together as a whole.  A social psychologist may investigate whether an individual helped another person due to a situational or personal factor, while a personality psychologist would examine whether a certain personality type is more likely to make situational or dispositional attributions or look for traits that govern helping behavior.

1.1.2. How Social Psychologists Do Their Work?

The answer to the question guiding this section is really quite simple – observation . Psychology, as most fields in science, operates by observing the world around the observer. We take note of the actions of others in relation to tragic events such as a natural disaster or school shooting, how lovers behave in public and query them about their actions behind close doors, and a person’s reaction to the opening of a new restaurant or receiving poor service (and subsequent tipping behavior).  Observation alone is not enough.

Once we take note of these different types of behaviors, we have to find a way to measure it and eventually record the behavior. If we want to study public displays of affection (PDAs) we have to clearly state what these displays are or how they will appear so we know for sure that they have occurred. This might be a gentle touch, an embrace, a passionate kiss or maybe just a quick one. Once we know what it is we are observing, we can record its occurrence in a notebook, through the use of a video recorder, in conjunction with another observer, or with a golf stroke counter.

Finally, scientists seek to manipulate the conditions in which people experience the world to see what the effect is on their social behavior. This is the hallmark of experimentation as you will come to see in Module 2.

So how do social psychologists do what they do? They observe the world, measure and record behavior, and then manipulate the conditions under which such behavior may occur so that they can make causal statements about social behavior.

1.1.3. Two Forms Their Work Might Take

Science has two forms – basic/pure and applied. Basic science is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge for the sake of the knowledge and nothing else while applied science desires to find solutions to real-world problems. You might think of it like this – the researcher decides on a question to investigate in pure science, but an outside source identifies the research question/problem in applied science. Of course, this is not always the case. A social psychologist doing basic research may focus on questions related to people’s thoughts, behaviors, and feelings such as why do people treat outgroup members differently than ingroup members, why do first impressions matter so much, why do we help people in some situations but not others, and why are we attracted to some people but not others? Applied social scientists would in turn use this research to develop K-12 programs to promote the toleration of those who are different than us, help people interviewing for a job to make a good first impression, develop stealthy interventions that encourage altruistic behavior, or encourage people to interact favorably with all regardless of our attraction to them.

As the Society for Personality and Social Psychology states on their website, “Of course, the distinction between basic and applied research is often a fuzzy one. One can certainly perform basic research in applied domains, and the findings from each type of research enrich the other. Indeed, it would be fair to say that most personality and social psychologists have both basic and applied interests” ( http://www.spsp.org/about/what-socialpersonality-psychology ).

1.1.4. Comparing the Approach to Research Across Three Disciplines

1.1.4.1. Exploring a social issue. One way to really understand the differences between the seemingly inter-related disciplines of social psychology, personality psychology, and sociology is to explore how each deal with a specific social issue. For the purposes of our discussion, we will tackle the obesity epidemic.

1.1.4.2. Sociology . Our focus will be on the article “Obesity is in the eye of the beholder: BMI and socioeconomic outcomes across cohorts” written by Vida Maralani and Douglas McKee of Cornell University in 2017 and published in the journal Sociological Science . The study begs the question of whether the threshold for being “too fat” is a static or fluid concept as it pertains to socioeconomic outcomes. The researchers used two nationally representative birth cohorts of Americans from the 1979 and 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. The sample from 1979 included 5,890 respondents aged 14 to 22 and the 1997 sample included 6,082 participants aged 12 to 17. The relationship between body mass and the socioeconomic outcomes of wages, the probability of being married, and total family income were studied across the domains of work and marriage. In the two cohorts the authors analyzed the outcomes separately for each of four social groups (white men, black men, white women, and black women).

The results showed that the patterns for those who are considered “too fat” or “too thin” differ systematically by gender, race, and social outcome, and “…the association between BMI and social outcomes is often not constant within the ranges of the standard cutoffs…” (pg. 310). For white men, outcomes were worse at higher BMIs while at low and lower-middle BMIs outcomes improved. For white women, meaningful patterns emerged for being quite thin rather than excessively or moderately fat. As the authors say, “The patterns for all women in the 1979 cohort and white women in the 1997 cohort remind us that norms of thinness dominate women’s lives at work and at home. But, we are also struck by the evidence that a body ideal operates for white men in multiple domains as well” (pg. 313).

For all groups the researchers found that the association between BMI and being married weakens across the two cohorts. It may be that as BMI has increased for all groups, we have become accepting of marrying partners who are larger. One stereotype of black men is that they are more accepting of larger women than are white men. The results did not support this notion and in fact, the data suggested that a body ideal of thinness existed for both white and black women in the 1979 cohort.

And finally, the authors end the article by saying, “The relationship between body size and socioeconomic outcomes depends on who is being judged, who is doing the judging, and in which social domain. Rather than using the medical conceptualization of obesity, it is important to recognize that “too fat” is a subjective, contingent, and fluid judgment in the social world” (pg. 314).

Source: Maralani, V., & McKee, D. (2017). Obesity is in the eye of the beholder: BMI and socioeconomic outcomes across cohorts. Sociological Science , 4 , 288-317.

1.1.4.3. Social psychology . Our focus for social psychology will be on the article entitled, “Disgust predicts prejudice and discrimination toward individuals with obesity” written by Lenny Vartanian and Tara Trewarth of UNSW Australia and Eric Vanman of The University of Queensland and published in the Journal of Applied Social Psychology in 2016. The authors start by pointing out that there has been a recent shift toward studying the emotions underlying prejudicial beliefs toward individuals with obesity, with a focus on the intergroup emotions of disgust, contempt, and anger. The authors cited research suggesting that the specific emotion elicited by a group was dependent on the threat posed by another group. Since obese individuals are not generally seen as threatening to others or as infringing on the freedom of others, they are less likely to elicit anger as an emotion and more likely to elicit disgust and maybe contempt.

The study by Vartanian et al. (2016) included 598 participants who were predominantly male and Caucasian, had a mean age of 35.88, and a BMI of 26.39. They were randomly assigned to view a photograph of either an obese female or a female with a healthy weight. Information was also given about the target and her daily activities such as being age 35, owning a pet, and enjoying shopping. Participants indicated to what extent they felt disgust, contempt, and anger toward the target individual on a visual analogue scale with possible scores ranging from 0 or Not at all to 100 or Extremely. Attitude was measured on a 7-point scale, the target individual was measured on a series of common obesity stereotypes such as being lazy or lacking self-discipline, social distance or how willing the participant would be to approach the target individual was measured on a 4-point scale, and participants completed an online version of the Seating Distance task as a measure of avoidance.

Results showed that disgust was expressed primarily toward the obese target, and participants held more negative attitudes, negative stereotypes, and saw this person as less competent than the healthy target. There was a greater desire for social distance from the obese target as well. The authors note that obese individuals often report being excluded or ignored, and previous bias-reduction efforts have largely failed. One explanation for these trends might be disgust. In terms of the failed interventions, modifying people’s cognitions are unlikely to change their emotional experiences. Hence a future challenge for researchers will be to find ways to change people’s emotional reactions to individuals with obesity.

Note that this article is a great example of the overlap many researchers have in terms of doing basic and applied research mentioned at the end of Section 1.1.3.

Source: Vartanian, L. R., Trewartha, T., & Vanman, E. J. (2016). Disgust predicts prejudice and discrimination toward individuals with obesity. Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 46 (6), 369-375.

1.1.4.4. Personality psychology. And finally, we will examine the article, “Personality traits and body mass index: Modifiers and mechanisms” written by Angelina Sutin and Antonio Terracciano of Florida State University and published in Psychological Health in 2016. The authors start by noting there is growing evidence that personality traits contribute to body weight with Conscientiousness related to a healthier BMI and Neuroticism having a positive association with BMI (meaning as one becomes more neurotic one weights more – higher BMI). Of course, physical activity is linked to lower body weight and individuals high in Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Emotional Stability tend to be more active.

The researchers obtained a sample of 5,150 participants who were on average 44.61 years old and mostly non-Hispanic European American. They completed the Big Five Inventory as an assessment of personality; reported their height and weight as an indicator of BMI; completed a behavioral questionnaire about their eating and physical activity habits over the past 30 days; and reported whether they had ever been diagnosed with chronic diseases such as diabetes, cancer, stroke, or high blood pressure.

Consistent with previous research, Neuroticism and Conscientiousness were most strongly related to BMI but more so for women than men, and in the expected direction. Additionally, those scoring higher on Activity, a facet of Extraversion, had a lower BMI. In terms of age, older participants who scored higher on Agreeableness had a lower BMI and though the protective effects of Conscientiousness were present for all, the association was slightly stronger for older participants. The authors explained, “Participants who were more emotionally stable, extraverted, open, agreeable, and conscientious reported eating healthier food, and less convenience food, engaging in more physical activity, and eating at regular intervals at the same time each day” (pg. 7). The study showed that as obesity goes, personality leads people to engage in specific behaviors that increases or decreases their risk of becoming obese and gaining weight.

Source: Sutin, A. R., & Terracciano, A. (2016). Personality traits and body mass index: modifiers and mechanisms. Psychology & health , 31 (3), 259-275.

For Further Consideration

Now that you have read about the three different articles, what differences do you notice in how social psychology, personality psychology, and sociology approach the same phenomena (i.e. obesity)? Are there methodological differences? How do they talk about the topic? Is the focus top down or bottom up? How do the different subfields (really psychology and sociology though you can distinguish between personality and social) frame their conclusions and the implications of what they discovered?

If possible, please read the articles. If you cannot obtain the article from your school library, your instructor may be able to.

• Define philosophy.
• Outline the four branches of philosophy.
• Hypothesize possible links between psychology and philosophy based on the four branches.
• Contrast the methods used by philosophy and psychology.
• List and describe philosophical worldviews that have impacted the field of psychology and clarify how.
• Clarify the importance of physiology for the development of psychology as a separate field.
• Identify the founder of psychology and the importance of his work.
• Clarify why identifying a clear founder for social psychology is difficult.
• List and describe the work of noteworthy social psychologists throughout history.

1.2.1. Unexpected Origins

1.2.1.1. Philosophy. Psychology arose out of philosophy, which is defined as the love and pursuit of knowledge. Philosophy divides itself into four main branches, each posing questions psychology addresses today as well. Metaphysics is the study of the nature of reality, what reality is like, what exists in the world, and how it is ordered. Key questions center on the existence of a higher power, what truth is, what a person is, whether all events are governed by fate or we have a free will, and causality or whether one event causes another. Epistemology is the study of knowledge and seeks to understand how we know what we know. Ethics concerns matters related to what we ought to do or what is best to do and asks what is good, what makes actions or people good, and how should we treat others. Finally, logic focuses on the nature and structure of arguments and determining whether a piece of reasoning is good or bad.

So how do these four branches link to psychology? Well, our field tries to understand people and how their mind works. We wonder why they do what they did (as you will come to see we call this an attribution) and look for causal relationships. In terms of fate vs. free will, we ask if what we will be throughout life is determined in childhood, and during a time when we cannot make many choices for ourselves. Consider an adult who holds prejudicial views of another group. Did growing up in a house where such attitudes were taught and reinforced on a near daily basis make it for certain a person would express the same beliefs later in life? Issues such as this show how psychology links to philosophy. As well, we study the elements of cognition such as schemas and propositions, how we learn, and types of thinking which falls under epistemology. As you will see, schemas are important to social identity theory and the assignment of people into groups or categories. Psychologists also study the proper and improper use of punishment, moral development, and obedience all of which fall under the branch of philosophy called ethics as well as decision making and the use of heuristics which involves logic.

The main difference, and an important one, between philosophy and psychology is in terms of the methods that are used. Philosophy focuses on speculation, intuition, and generalization from personal observation while psychology relies on experimentation and measurement, both of which were mentioned in Section 1.1.2, and in Module 2 we will discuss its main research methods of observation, case study, correlation, survey, and the experiment.

Philosophy has several worldviews which have played a direct role in the development of our field and some of its key ideas. First, dualism is the idea that questions whether the mind and body are distinct from one another and Rene Descartes (1596-1650) tackled this issue. Before Descartes it was believed that the mind influenced the body but the body had little effect on the mind. Descartes, on the other hand, said that both mind and body affected one another. This brought about a change in what was studied and how it was studied. Attention shifted away from the soul to the scientific study of the mind and mental processes.

Next, mechanism was the underlying philosophy of the 17th century and remained influential until the mid-1900s. It proposed that the world is a great machine. All-natural processes were thought to be mechanically determined and so could be explained by the laws of physics and chemistry. Due to mechanism, observation and experimentation became key features of science, with measurement following closely behind. People were thought to be like machines and mechanical contraptions called automata were created to imitate human movement and action. These machines were incredibly precise and regular.

Determinism is another philosophical worldview that has been important to psychology. It is the idea that every act is determined or caused by past events and so it is possible to predict changes that will occur in the operation of the universe. Why might this be important for science? Simply, determinism leads us to causal statements and in research, we seek to make such statements. It tells us that if A occurs, B follows. Prediction is the key here. Also important is reductionism or breaking things down to their basic components which is the hallmark of science itself.

Though other philosophical ideas are important too, we will conclude by mentioning empiricism or the idea that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience. Several famous empiricists were influential on psychology to include Locke, Berkley, Hartley, and John Stuart Mill. Empiricism includes the idea of the tabula rasa or the blank slate upon which experience is written. Hence, there are no innate ideas that we are born with. Mill proposed the interesting idea of a creative synthesis in which there is a combining of mental elements such that the product yields some distinct quality not present in the individual elements themselves. He said it is like a mental chemistry.

1.2.1.2. Physiology. It is important to note that psychology did not just rise out of philosophy, but also from physiology. The mid to late 1800s provided many remarkable findings about the functioning of the human brain. During this time we discovered what the cerebrum, midbrain, cerebellum, and medulla did thanks to the work of Flourens, began using electrical stimulation and the extirpation method (determining function by destroying a specific structure in the brain and then observing changes in behavior), discovered white and gray matter courtesy of Franz Josef Gall, realized that the nervous system was a conductor of electrical impulses, and determined that nerve fibers were composed of neurons and synapses. Key figures included people like von Helmholtz who studied the speed of neural impulse and correctly determined it to be 90 feet per second, Weber who proposed the concepts of two-point thresholds and the just noticeable difference (jnd), and Fechner who founded the field of psychophysics and proposed the absolute and difference thresholds. These figures showed how topics central to the new science of psychology could be studied empirically, provided a method for investigating the relationship between mind and body, and gave psychology precise and elegant measurement techniques.

1.2.2. The Birth of a Field

The field of psychology did not formally organize itself until 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt founded his laboratory at Leipzig, Germany. Wundt studied sensation and perception and began experimental psychology as a science.  He employed the use of introspection , or the examination of one’s own mental state, which is used today after being almost discarded as a method by the behaviorists throughout the first half of the 20th century. This method gave him precise experimental control over the conditions under which introspection was used. He established rigorous training of his observers and focused on objective measures provided by the use of sophisticated laboratory equipment, in keeping with the traditions of physiology. Wundt’s brand of psychology would give rise to the school of thought called Structuralism in the United States under Titchener and eventually stirred a rebellion in the form of Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology, though a discussion of how this occurred is beyond the scope of this book.

1.2.3. The Birth of Social Psychology

So, who might be considered the founder of social psychology? A few different answers are possible, starting with Norman Triplett who late in the 19th century published the first empirical research article in social psychology. He was interested in whether the presence of others might affect a person’s performance on a task. To answer the question, he compared how fast children would reel when alone and when competing with another child. His study showed that the “ bodily presence of another contestant participating simultaneously in the race serves to liberate latent energy not ordinarily available.” To read Triplett’s 1898 article, please visit: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Triplett/

Another candidate for founder is Maximilien Ringelmann, a French agricultural engineer, who conducted some of the earliest experiments in social psychology dating back to the 1880s. He found that people become less productive as the size of their group increases. He called this the “Ringelmann effect.”

The findings of these two individuals are interesting, and contradictory. In the case of Triplett, the presence of others improves performance but Ringelmann showed that the presence of others hinders performance. So which is it? As you will come to see it is both. What Triplett described is today called social facilitation while Ringelmann’s work is called social loafing . We will discuss this further in Module 8.

The production of research articles usually does not merit receiving the distinction of being a founder. Sometimes, a better indicator is the production of a textbook bearing the name of that area and to that end, it is necessary to give credit to William McDougall who wrote his textbook, An Introduction to Social Psychology in 1908, Edward Ross who also wrote a book in 1908, and Floyd Allport who completed his book in 1924. Though Allport’s book was written 16 years after Ross and McDougall’s books, it is especially important since it emphasized how people respond to stimuli in the environment, such as groups, and called for the use of experimental procedures and the scientific method which contrasted with Ross and McDougall’s more philosophical approaches.

One final individual is worth mentioning. Kurt Lewin, a noted Gestalt psychologist, proposed the idea of field theory and the life space, and is considered the founder of modern social psychology. He did work in the area of group dynamics and emphasized social action research on topics such as integrated housing, equal employment opportunities, and the prevention of prejudice in childhood. He promoted sensitivity training for educators and business leaders.

1.2.4. Noteworthy Social Psychologists

To round out our discussion of the history of social psychology, we wish to note some of the key figures in the subfield and provide a brief historical context as to when they worked. With that in mind, we begin with Francis Sumner (1895-1954) who was the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, which he earned from Clark University in 1920. Sumner went on to establish the field of Black psychology.

Solomon Asch (1907-1996) is most well-known for his studies on conformity and the finding that a large number of people will conform to the group even if the group’s position on an issue is clearly wrong. He also published on the primacy effect and the halo effect. Gordon Allport (1897-1967) , younger brother to the aforementioned Floyd Allport, conducted research on prejudice, religion, and attitudes, and trained famous psychologists such as Milgram and Jerome Bruner. He also helped to form the field of personality psychology.

From 1939 to 1950, Mamie (1917-1983) and Kenneth (1914-2005) Clark conducted important research on the harmful effects of racial segregation and showed that Black children preferred not only to play with white dolls but also “colored the line drawing of the child a shade lighter than their own skin.” Their research was used by the Supreme Court in the Brown vs. Board of Education decision of 1954 that ended the racial segregation of public schools and overturned the 1892 decision in Plessy vs. Ferguson which legitimized “separate but equal” educations for White and Black students. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote:

Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The impact is greater when it has the sanction of law; for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the Negro group. A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has the tendency to [retard] the educational and mental development of Negro children and to deprive them of some of the benefits they would receive in a racial[ly] integrated school system.

Kenneth Clark was also the first African American to be elected President of the American Psychological Association. For more on the landmark case, please visit: https://www.apa.org/research/action/segregation.aspx

Leon Festinger (1919-1989) is best known for his theory of cognitive dissonance and social comparison theory while Irving Janis (1918-1990) conducted research on attitude change, groupthink, and decision making. Stanley Schachter (1922-1997) proposed the two-factor theory of emotion which states that emotions are a product of physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal. Carolyn (1922-1982) and Muzafer (1906-1988) Sherif are known for the Robbers Cave experiment which divided boys at a summer camp into two groups who overcame fierce intergroup hostility by working towards superordinate goals.

During the Nuremberg trials after World War II, many German soldiers were asked why they would do many of the unspeakable crimes they were accused of. The simple response was that they were told to. This led Stanley Milgram (1933-1984) to see if they were correct. Through a series of experiments in the 1960s he found that participants would shock a learner to death, despite their protests, because they were told to continue by the experimenter. He also did work on the small-world phenomenon, lost letter experiment, and the cyranoid method.

To learn about other key figures in the history of social psychology, please visit: https://www.socialpsychology.org/social-figures.htm

• Describe current trends in social neuroscience as they relate to social psychology.
• Describe current trends in evolutionary psychology as they relate to social psychology.
• Describe current trends in cross-cultural research as they relate to social psychology.
• Describe current trends in technology as they relate to social psychology.

Social psychology’s growth continues into the 21st century and social neuroscience, evolutionary explanations, cross-cultural research, and the internet are trending now. How so?

1.3.1. Social Neuroscience

Emerging in the early 1990s, there is a new emphasis on cognitive processes which has led to the formation of the interdisciplinary field of social neuroscience or how the brain affects our social behavior and is affected by it (Lieberman, 2010). So how do social psychology and social neuroscience form their own separate identities? Cacioppo, Berntson, and Decety (2010) state that social neuroscience studies “neural, hormonal, cellular, and genetic mechanisms and, relatedly, to the study of the associations and influences between social and biological levels of organization” and where human beings fit into the broader biological context.” Though social psychology does study biological factors, its emphasis has traditionally been on situational factors and dispositional factors through its collaboration with personality psychologists. Both social neuroscience and social psychology focus on social behavior and so can be aligned and make meaningful contributions to constructs and theories presented in the other. The authors clear up any concern about overlap by saying, “The emphasis in each is sufficiently different that neither field is in danger of being reduced to or replaced by the other, but articulating the different levels of analysis can provide a better understanding of complex social phenomena.”

Specific contributions of social neuroscience include imaging the working human brain through such methods as “multi-modal structural, hemodynamic, and electrophysiological brain imaging acquisition and analysis techniques; more sophisticated specifications and analyses of focal brain lesions; focused experimental manipulations of brain activity using transcranial magnetic stimulation and pharmacological agents; and emerging visualization and quantitative techniques that integrate anatomical and functional connectivity.” These methods have paved the way for increased understanding of the greatest asset human beings have and move us away from having to make analogies from animals to humans courtesy of brain lesion studies and electrophysiological recording and the postmortem examinations of human brains.

Social neuroscience is an effort of biological, cognitive, and social scientists to collaborate in a more systematic way and all share “a common belief that the understanding of mind and behavior could be enhanced by an integrative analysis that encompasses levels of organization ranging from genes to cultures.”  From it, several subareas have emerged to include cultural neuroscience, social developmental neuroscience, comparative social neuroscience, social cognitive neuroscience, and social affective neuroscience.

Cacioppo, Berntson, and Decety (2010) conclude, “The field of social neuroscience, therefore, represents an interdisciplinary perspective that embraces animal as well as human research, patient as well as nonpatient research, computational as well as empirical analyses, and neural as well as behavioral studies.”

To read the whole article, please visit: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3883133/

Citation: Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., & Decety, J. (2010). Social neuroscience and its relationship to social psychology. Social Cognition , 28 (6), 675-685.

1.3.2. Evolutionary Explanations

Any behavior that exists today does so because it offers an evolutionary advantage to the species as a whole. Though not its own distinct branch of psychology, evolutionary psychology is impacting all subfields. So what is it? According to David Buss, Professor of Psychology at the University of Texas at Austin, it is based on four premises:

• Evolutionary processes have affected and shaped both body and brain, in terms of psychological mechanisms and the behaviors that are produced
• Many of these mechanisms are adaptations to solve problems that contribute to the survival of the species
• These adaptations are activated in modern environments that differ in important ways from ancestral environments
• Psychological mechanisms having adaptive functions is a critical and necessary ingredient for psychology to be comprehensive

Buss goes on to describe specific ways evolutionary psychology has informed the various subfields. In relation to our discussion of social psychology he says it has “produced a wealth of discoveries, ranging from adaptations for altruism to the dark sides of social conflict.” Evolutionary psychology is also helping to discover adaptive individual differences through its interaction with personality psychology. In relation to our previous discussion of social neuroscience, Buss says, “Cognitive and social neuroscientists, for example, use modern technologies such as fMRI to test hypotheses about social exclusion adaptations, emotions such as sexual jealousy, and kin recognition mechanisms.”

For more on Buss’ comments, and those of other researchers in relation to evolutionary theory and psychology, please visit the APA science briefs:

https://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2009/05/sci-brief.aspx

1.3.3. Cross-Cultural Research

Quite possibly the most critical trend in social psychology today is the realization that it is completely cultural.  In 1972, the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology was founded and today has a membership of over 800 individuals in over 65 countries. The group’s primary aim is to study the intersection of culture and psychology. The group publishes the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (to learn more about them, visit: http://iaccp.org/ ). In 1977, Harry Trandis published the article, “Cross-cultural Social and Personality Psychology” and outlined the study of cultural influences on social behavior.

Singelis (2000) predicted a continued and increasing interest in cross-cultural social psychology due to a rise of a multi-cultural Zeitgeist in the United States courtesy of the civil rights movement, more sophisticated quantitative methods in cross-cultural research which have proven to be more acceptable to those trained in social psychology’s scientific tradition, and a greater acceptance of qualitative methods which is necessary to understanding cultural meanings. This will lead to a redefining of what the self means (the topic of Module 3) since it is shaped by cultural context and influences social behavior through a person’s values, evaluations, and perceptions. The self now includes the East Asian conception of it being interdependent.

Additionally, Singelis (2000) predicts new constructs will emerge that “combine seemingly opposite orientations in an integrative synthesis that is contrary to the typical Cartesian-like dichotomy” and a “shift away from individually oriented constructs toward those that capture social relationships.” Examples include the autonomous-relational self which synthesizes autonomy and human relationships, relational harmony or the degree of harmony in the person’s five most important relationships, and social oriented achievement motivation which includes the Western concept of self-realization and the non-Western idea of achievement motivation including others whose boundaries are not distinct from the self.

Singeleis (2000) concludes, “The increasing interest in culture, the rise in the number of psychologists outside the United Stated, and the willingness to consider many variables and points of view will keep cross-cultural social psychology vital and dynamic into the 21st century.” A more recent trend is multi-cultural research which focused on racial and ethnic diversity within cultures.

1.3.4. The Internet

In Section 1.2.3, and later in this book, we described early work on social loafing. Did you know that employers have recognized that social loafing in the workplace is serious enough of an issue that they now closely monitor what their employees are doing, in relation to surfing the web, online shopping, playing online games, managing finances, searching for another job, checking Facebook, sending a text, or watching Youtube videos? They are, and the phenomenon is called cyberloafing . Employees are estimated to spend from three hours a week up to 2.5 hours a day cyberloafing. So what can employers do about it? Kim, Triana, Chung, and Oh (2015) reported that employees high in the personality trait of Conscientiousness are less likely to cyberloaf when they perceive greater levels of organizational justice. So they recommend employers to screen candidates during the interview process for conscientiousness and emotional stability, develop clear policies about when personal devices can be used, and “create appropriate human resource practices and effectively communicate with employees so they feel people are treated fairly” (Source: https://news.wisc.edu/driven-to-distraction-what-causes-cyberloafing-at-work/ ). Cyberloafing should be distinguished from leisure surfing which Matthew McCarter of The University of Texas at San Antonio says can relieve stress and help employees recoup their thoughts (Source: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/01/160120111527.htm ).

Myers (2016) points out that human beings have a need to belong and when we are alone, we suffer. Today, technology connects us in new and very important ways. He cites research showing that a teenager in the U.S. sends and receives 30 text per day, most teens prefer to use “fingered speech” over talking on the phone, and nearly half of all people in the world use the internet on a daily basis. So what is good about the internet? E-commerce, telecommuting, finding love, and obtaining information are clear benefits. In fact, online romances have been found to last longer since both individuals engage in greater levels of self-disclosure and share values and interests (Bargh & McKenna, 2004; Joinson, 2001a; Joinson, 2001b). How likely are people to give out personal information to someone they do not know? Research shows that trust is key. When we trust we are more likely to accede to a request for personal information (Joinson, Reips, Buchanan, & Schofield, 2010). Costs include deindividuation or faceless anonymity, time lost from face-to-face relationships, self-segregation which leads to group polarization, and what Myers (2016) calls “slacktivism” or, “the effortless signing of online petitions or sharing of prosocial videos may substitute feel-good Internet clicks for real, costly helping.” This ties into the cyberloafing information presented above.

For more on the Myers (2016) article, please visit: http://www.davidmyers.org/davidmyers/assets/SocialPsychologyInternet.pdf

Additional Resources:

• Psychology Today – Introduction to Internet Psychology – https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-social-net/201302/introduction-internet-psychology
• APA – Children and Internet Use – https://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2003/12/jackson.aspx
• Psychology and the Internet (book) – https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780123694256/psychology-and-the-internet
• Clarify what it means to communicate findings.
• Identify professional societies in social psychology.
• Identify publications in social psychology.

One of the functions of science is to communicate findings. Testing hypotheses, developing sound methodology, accurately analyzing data, and drawing cogent conclusions are important, but you must tell others what you have done too. This is accomplished via joining professional societies and submitting articles to peer reviewed journals. Below are some of the societies and journals important to social psychology.

1.4.1. Professional Societies

• Website – https://www.apa.org/about/division/div8.aspx
• Mission Statement – “Division 8: Society for Personality and Social Psychology seeks to advance the progress of theory, basic and applied research, and practice in the field of personality and social psychology. Members are employed in academia and private industry or government, and all are concerned with how individuals affect and are affected by other people and by their social and physical environments.”
• Publication – Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin (monthly) and Personality and Social Psychology Review (quarterly)
• Other Information – “ Membership in SPSP is open to students and those whose work focuses largely in social/personality psychology. Members receive discounts to the SPSP Convention, access to three journals, access to the SPSP Job Board, and much more.”
• Website – https://www.sesp.org/
• Mission Statement – “The Society of Experimental Social Psychology (SESP) is an international scientific organization dedicated to the advancement of social psychological research. Our typical members have Ph.D.s in social psychology, and work in academic or other research settings.”
• Publication – Social Psychological and Personality Science
• Other Information – “ One of the main ways that SESP furthers its goal is by holding an annual scientific meeting in the early fall of each year, publishing the journal Social Psychological and Personality Science, supporting the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , and contributing to advocacy efforts as a member of FABBS (the Federation of Associations in Behavioral and Brain Sciences). SESP was founded in 1965 by a group of social psychologists led by Edwin Hollander and W. Edgar Vinacke, as described in Hollander (1968). SESP currently boasts over 1000 elected members.”
• Website – https://www.easp.eu/
• Mission Statement – “The overarching aim of the European Association of Social Psychology is straightforward: to promote excellence in European research in the field of social psychology. As the history of the Association demonstrates, the objectives of those who founded the Association were to improve the quality of social psychological research in Europe by promoting greater contact among researchers in different European countries.”
• Publication – European Journal of Social Psychology
• Other Information – “ It is a tradition of the EASP to honour members who make an outstanding contribution to the discipline. Every three years, on the occasion of the General Meeting, one member receives the Tajfel Medal and is invited to deliver the Henri Tajfel Lecture. This recognizes the contribution of a senior researcher to the field of social psychology over the course of their lifetime. In 2017 we will, for the first time, grant a Moscovici award to honour the author(s) of an outstanding theoretical contribution to the field.”
• Website – http://www.personality-arp.org/
• Mission Statement – “Founded in 2001, ARP’s mission is a scientific organization devoted to bringing together scholars whose research contributes to the understanding of personality structure, development, and dynamics. From 2001 through 2008, ARP met annually as an SPSP preconference. Since 2009, we have held a stand-alone biennial conference.”
• Publication – ARP is a co-sponsor of Social Psychological and Personality Science
• Other Information – “ The ARP Emerging Scholar Award is presented biennially to recognize exceptionally high quality work from emerging personality psychologists. To be eligible for the award, nominees must be a graduate student or postdoctoral member of ARP. The ARP Executive Board established this award in 2018.”

1.4.2. Publications

• Website: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vsoc20
• Published by: Taylor and Francis
• Description: “Since John Dewey and Carl Murchison founded it in 1929, The Journal of Social Psychology has published original empirical research in all areas of basic and applied social psychology. Most articles report laboratory or field research in core areas of social and organizational psychology including the self and social identity, person perception and social cognition, attitudes and persuasion, social influence, consumer behavior, decision making, groups and teams, stereotypes and discrimination, interpersonal attraction and relationships, prosocial behavior, aggression, organizational behavior, leadership, and cultural psychology.”
• Website: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/psp/
• Published by: American Psychological Association
• Description: “ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology publishes original papers in all areas of personality and social psychology and emphasizes empirical reports, but may include specialized theoretical, methodological, and review papers.” The journal has three independently edited sections: Attitudes and Social Cognition, Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes, and Personality Processes and Individual Differences.”
• Website: https://journals.sagepub.com/home/psp
• Published by: Division 8 of APA: Society for Personality and Social Psychology
• Description: “ Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin ( PSPB ), published monthly, is an official journal for the Society of Personality and Social Psychology. PSPB offers an international forum for the rapid dissemination of original empirical papers in all areas of personality and social psychology.”
• Website: https://journals.sagepub.com/home/psr
• Description: “Personality and Social Psychology Review ( PSPR ) is the premiere outlet for original theoretical papers and conceptual review articles in all areas of personality and social psychology. PSPR offers stimulating conceptual pieces that identify exciting new directions for research on the psychological underpinnings of human individuality and social functioning, as well as comprehensive review papers that provide new, integrative frameworks for existing theory and research programs.”
• Website: https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/journal/social-psychological-and-personality-science
• Published by: Wiley
• Description: “ SPPS is a unique short reports journal in social and personality psychology. Its aim is to publish concise reports of empirical studies that provide meaningful contributions to our understanding of important issues in social and personality psychology. SPPS strives to publish innovative, rigorous, and impactful research. It is geared toward a speedy review and publication process to allow groundbreaking research to become part of the scientific conversation quickly.”
• Website: https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-experimental-social-psychology/
• Published by: Elsevier
• Description: “The Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (JESP) aims to publish articles that extend or create conceptual advances in social psychology. As the title of the journal indicates, we are focused on publishing primary reports of research in social psychology that use experimental or quasi-experimental.”

For a complete list of journals in social and personality psychology, please visit: https://www.socialpsychology.org/journals.htm#social

1.4.3. Online Social Psychology News

If you are interested in keeping up with current research in the field of social psychology, visit SPSP’s Character and Context blog by visiting http://spsp.org/news-center/blog/2018-December-14-ICYMI or take a look at Science Daily’s Social Psychology News page at https://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain/social_psychology/ .

Module Recap

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes and when we apply a social lens, we examine how people interact with, or relate to, others. Social psychology differs from sociology in terms of its level of analysis – individual people and not the larger group – and is allied with personality psychology which examines how traits affect our social behavior. The history of social psychology is relatively short though many meaningful contributions have already been made. Still more are on the horizon as we branch out into cross-cultural and evolutionary psychology, forge a separate identity from social neuroscience, and engage in a deeper understanding of the effects of technology, and specifically the internet, on us. A snapshot of important professional societies and journals was offered as ways to communicate what individual researchers or teams are learning about social behavior with the broader scientific community and at times the general public.

This discussion will lead us into Module 2 where we discuss research methods used in social psychology. This will be the final module of Part I: Setting the Stage.

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Journal scope statement

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology ® publishes original papers in all areas of personality and social psychology and emphasizes empirical reports, but may include specialized theoretical, methodological, and review papers.

The journal is divided into three independently edited sections.

Attitudes and Social Cognition publishes articles concerning attitudinal and social cognitive processes (e.g., attitudes, beliefs, stereotyping and prejudice, cognition, emotion, and motivation) that take place in micro- and macrolevel social contexts.

Topics include, but are not limited to, attitudes, persuasion, attributions, stereotypes, prejudice, person memory, motivation and self-regulation, communication, social development, cultural processes, and the interplay of moods and emotions with cognition.

We accept papers using traditional social-personality psychology methods. However, we also strongly welcome innovative, theory-driven papers that utilize novel methods (e.g., biological methods, neuroscience, large-scale interventions, social network analyses, or "big data" approaches).

All papers will be evaluated with criteria that are consistent with those of the best empirical outlets in social, behavioral, and biological sciences.

Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes focuses on the psychology of (interpersonal, intragroup, intergroup) social relations and relationships, whether enduring or fleeting.

Submissions may address one type of social relation (e.g., close romantic relationships) or they may address multiple types of social relation (e.g., status within a team and across an institution). Submissions may employ one method or multiple methods. Submissions may examine one context or multiple contexts (e.g., countries, developmental period).

Although a multiplicity of methods and contexts will likely be considered a strength, all submissions should address the implications of the chosen method and context for the power and quality of inference.

For more on the orientation of the section please refer to the Editor's Editorial: Colin Wayne Leach, editor, JPSP-IRGP section, December 2019 (PDF, 85KB) .

Personality Processes and Individual Differences publishes research on all aspects of personality psychology. It includes studies of individual differences and basic processes in behavior, emotions, coping, health, motivation, and other phenomena that reflect personality.

Articles in areas such as personality structure, personality development, and personality assessment are also appropriate to this section of the journal, as are studies of the interplay of culture and personality and manifestations of personality in everyday behavior.

Disclaimer: APA and the editors of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology assume no responsibility for statements and opinions advanced by the authors of its articles.

Equity, diversity, and inclusion

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology supports equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) in its practices. More information on these initiatives is available under EDI Efforts .

Open science

The APA Journals Program is committed to publishing transparent, rigorous research; improving reproducibility in science; and aiding research discovery. Open science practices vary per editor discretion. View the initiatives implemented by this journal .

Editor’s Choice

Each issue of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology ® will honor one accepted manuscript per issue by selecting it as an “ Editor’s Choice ” paper. Selection is based on the discretion of the editor if the paper offers an unusually large potential impact to the field and/or elevates an important future direction for science.

Call for papers

• Generative AI as a New Human Relationship ( Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes )

Author and editor spotlights

Explore journal highlights : free article summaries, editor interviews and editorials, journal awards, mentorship opportunities, and more.

Prior to submission, please carefully read and follow the submission guidelines detailed below. Manuscripts that do not conform to the submission guidelines may be returned without review.

General submission guidelines

The editorial team of the  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology is committed to both transparency and rigor in conducting and reporting research. We believe that science advances through a cyclical and recursive process that includes both (i) a theory-building, exploratory/descriptive phase and (ii) a theory-testing, confirmatory phase. Further, we recognize that replication efforts are the part and parcel of the science that is empirically valid and socially responsible. We therefore support and encourage research that is informed by both phases. Guided by this overarching philosophy, we set out some concrete submission standards.

Transparency and openness

APA endorses the Transparency and Openness Promotion (TOP) Guidelines by a community working group in conjunction with the Center for Open Science ( Nosek et al. 2015 ). Effective July 1, 2021, empirical research, including meta-analyses, submitted to the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology must at least meet the “requirement” level (Level 2) for citation; data, code, and materials transparency; design and analysis transparency; and study and analysis plan preregistration. Authors should include a subsection in the method section titled “Transparency and Openness.” This subsection should detail the efforts the authors have made to comply with the TOP guidelines.

For example:

• We report how we determined our sample size, all data exclusions (if any), all manipulations, and all measures in the study, and we follow JARS (Appelbaum et al., 2018). All data, analysis code, and research materials are available at [stable link to repository]. Data were analyzed using R, version 4.0.0 (R Core Team, 2020) and the package ggplot , version 3.2.1 (Wickham, 2016). This study’s design and its analysis were not pre-registered.

Links to preregistrations and data, code, and materials should also be included in the author note.

Data, materials, and code

Authors must state whether data, code, and study materials are posted to a trusted repository and, if so, how to access them, including their location and any limitations on use. If they cannot be made available, authors must state the legal or ethical reasons why they are not available. Trusted repositories adhere to policies that make data discoverable, accessible, usable, and preserved for the long term. Trusted repositories also assign unique and persistent identifiers. Recommended repositories include APA’s repository on the Open Science Framework (OSF), ResearchBox.org, or authors can access a full list of other recommended repositories .

In a subsection titled “Transparency and Openness” at the end of the method section, specify whether and where the data and materials are available or note the legal or ethical reasons for not doing so. For submissions with quantitative or simulation analytic methods, state whether the study analysis code is posted to a trusted repository, and, if so, how to access it (or the legal or ethical reason why it is not available).

• All data have been made publicly available at the [trusted repository name] and can be accessed at [persistent URL or DOI].
• Materials and analysis code for this study are not available.
• The code behind this analysis/simulation has been made publicly available at the [trusted repository name] and can be accessed at [persistent URL or DOI].

If you cannot make your data available on a public site, authors are required to follow current APA policy to make the materials and data used in a published study available in a timely manner to other researchers upon request.

If an author has multiple studies, the repository landing page should clearly identify how to access the specific type of information for each study and the links.

• Download a quick guide on how to organize this information (PDF, 310KB)

Disclosure of prior uses of data

Upon submission of a manuscript, the authors must disclose any prior uses in published, accepted, or under review papers of data reported in the manuscript. The cover letter should include a complete reference list of these articles as well as a description of the extent and nature of any overlap between the present submission and the previous work.

Citation standards

Upon submission, all data sets, materials, and program code created by others must be appropriately cited in the text and listed in the reference section. Such materials should be recognized as original intellectual contributions and afforded recognition through citation.

Where possible, references for data sets and program code should include a persistent identifier assigned by digital archives, such as a Digital Object Identifier (DOI).

Data set citation example: Campbell, Angus, and Robert L. Kahn. American National Election Study, 1948. ICPSR07218v3. Ann Arbor, MI: Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 1999. http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR07218.v3

Design and analysis transparency

Authors must adhere to the  Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS) (PDF, 220KB) . See also the specific section editorials and instructions on information to include in method and results sections. It is particularly important to provide justifiable power considerations and specific details related to sample characteristics.

Preregistration of studies and analysis plans

Preregistration of studies and specific hypotheses can be a useful tool for making strong theoretical claims. Likewise, preregistration of analysis plans can be useful for distinguishing confirmatory and exploratory analyses. Investigators may preregister prior to conducting the research via a publicly accessible registry system (e.g., OSF, ClinicalTrials.gov, or other trial registries in the WHO Registry Network). There are many available templates; for example, AsPredicted.org; and APA, the British Psychological Society, and the German Psychological Society partnered with the Leibniz Institute for Psychology and Center for Open Science to create Preregistration Standards for Quantitative Research in Psychology (Bosnjak et al., 2022).

At the same time, we recognize that there may be good reasons to change a study or analysis plan after it has been preregistered, and thus encourage authors to do so when appropriate so long as all changes are clearly and transparently disclosed in the manuscript.

The journal also acknowledges that preregistration may not always be appropriate, especially in the exploratory phases of a research project. If authors choose to preregister their research and analyses plans, all documents should be succinct, specific, and targeted, as well as anonymized to maintain double-blind peer review.

Articles must state whether or not any work was preregistered and, if so, where to access the preregistration. Preregistrations must be available to reviewers; authors may submit a masked copy via stable link or supplemental material. Links in the method section should be replaced with an identifiable copy on acceptance.

• This study’s design was preregistered; see [STABLE LINK OR DOI].
• This study’s design and hypotheses were preregistered; see [STABLE LINK OR DOI].
• This study’s analysis plan was preregistered; see [STABLE LINK OR DOI].
• This study was not preregistered.

Whether or not a study is preregistered, the  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology  stresses the importance of transparency in reporting and expects researchers to fully disclose in their manuscript all decisions that were data-dependent (e.g., deciding when to stop data collection, what observations to exclude, what covariates to include, and what analyses to conduct after rather than before seeing the data).

Replication and Registered Reports

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology acknowledges the significance of replication in building a cumulative knowledge base in our field. We therefore encourage submissions that attempt to replicate important findings, especially research previously published in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology .

Major criteria for publication of replication papers include (i) theoretical significance of the finding being replicated, (ii) statistical power of the study that is carried out, and (iii) the number and power of previous replications of the same finding.

Other factors that would weigh in favor of a replication submission include: pre-registration of hypotheses, design, and analysis; submissions by researchers other than the authors of the original findings; and attempts to replicate more than one study of a multi-study original publication.

Please note in the Manuscript Submission Portal that the submission is a replication article; submissions should include “A Replication of XX Study” in the subtitle of the manuscript as well as in the abstract. Replication manuscripts, if accepted, will be published online only and will be listed in the Table of Contents in the print journal.

Papers that make a substantial novel conceptual contribution and also incorporate replications of previous findings continue to be welcome as regular submissions.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology will also publish Registered Reports. Such submissions will consist of a detailed research proposal, including an abstract, introduction, hypotheses, method, planned analyses, and implications of the expected results.

We recommend that authors initially contact the editor before submitting a Registered Report. The proposed research will be reviewed and, if approved, should then be carried out in accordance with the proposed plan. For the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Attitudes and Social Cognition section, all manuscripts and preregistered reports/proposals should be submitted only through the portal and not via email to the editorial office. We cannot provide feedback based on emails to the office or the editor. Instead, the triage/ preliminary review is designed to make rapid determinations of fit for the journal. In addition, the sample manuscripts may be useful for potential authors who wish to determine the types of papers that might be appropriate for JPSP: ASC .

To the extent that the study is judged to have been competently performed, the paper will be accepted (pending any necessary revisions) regardless of the outcome of the study.

Section submission guidelines

Submit manuscripts to the appropriate section editor. Section editors reserve the right to redirect papers as appropriate. When papers are judged as better suited for another section, editors ordinarily will return papers to authors and suggest resubmission to the more appropriate section.

Rejection by one section editor is considered rejection by all; therefore a manuscript rejected by one section editor should not be submitted to another.

All three sections of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology are now using a software system to screen submitted content for similarity with other published content.

The system compares the initial version of each submitted manuscript against a database of 40+ million scholarly documents, as well as content appearing on the open web.

This allows APA to check submissions for potential overlap with material previously published in scholarly journals (e.g., lifted or republished material).

Attitudes and Social Cognition

To submit to the editorial office of Dolores Albarracín, please submit manuscripts electronically through the Manuscript Submission Portal in Word Document format (.doc).

Submit Manuscript to Attitudes and Social Cognition Section

Dolores Albarracín, PhD University of Pennsylvania Annenberg Public Policy Center 200 S. 36th Street Philadelphia, PA 19104

General correspondence may be directed to the editor's office .

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Attitudes and Social Cognition publishes articles concerning attitudinal and social cognitive processes (e.g., attitudes, beliefs, stereotyping and prejudice, cognition, emotion, and motivation) that take place in micro- and macrolevel social contexts.

Type of manuscripts

• Empirical : Experimental, correlational, and qualitative studies may be considered, and a combination of different methods is strongly encouraged.
• Meta-analysis : Quantitative research synthesis.

Publication criteria

Major theoretical contribution and/or discovery demonstrated with rigorous methods.

Articles can make a major theoretical contribution by:               

• developing a new theory (new theory);
• developing a conceptualization of social-psychological phenomenon not previously studied within the field (new theory for new phenomenon);
• using an existing theory to explain a new phenomenon (existing theory for new phenomenon);
• making novel connections between two theories to address new empirical questions (combination of theories to address new phenomenon);
• providing a novel integration of phenomena under an existing theory originally designed to understand a different phenomenon in another area of research (theoretical integration to explain multiple phenomena);
• establishing the operation of psychological processes to explain a phenomenon that’s currently understood as implicating different processes (new processes to explain prior understanding of a phenomenon);
• conceptualizing the conditions that give way to different processes previously studied independently (novel identification of conditions under which different processes occur);
• conceptualizing moderators that explain conflicting predictions in the literature (identification of conditions that reconcile prior theoretical conflicts);
• introducing a new moderator that help us to understand the conditions under which a previously established phenomenon occurs (new moderator);
• introducing new elements to a theory that failed to explain a phenomenon (increasing generalizability via theoretical development);
• introducing a new theoretical construct and demonstrate its import (new construct);
• replicating seminal research that has made any of the contributions above, ideally contributing to explaining variability in past findings; or
• another theoretical contribution specified by the author (other).

Articles may also make empirical contributions via discovery , which involves the demonstration of a new, significant empirical phenomenon (e.g., a particular pattern of social behavior; a type of response not previously identified; and a new, surprising implication of an existing theory). Sometimes a new discovery goes hand in hand with a new conceptual development, but other times prior theories are used to draw new empirical implications. Given the scope of JPSP: ASC, discovery articles should still provide evidence of psychological processes.

Rigorous methods are defined by the literature at a particular time and include the validation of measures and experimental manipulation, sound statistical methods, and adequate statistical power.

Findings that have the potential to impact societal outcomes are encouraged. For example, a theoretical innovation or discovery will be seen as more significant if it has the potential to change how aspects of the social world may be modified with this knowledge. The inclusion of diverse samples, nationally representative samples, interventions, and behavioral endpoints or objective outcomes increase the potential impact of the research on contemporary society.

Of note, authors and reviewers will be asked to describe what criterion/a met by each manuscript. JPSP-ASC seeks to acknowledge the research context in evaluating manuscripts. In some cases, a single large-scale survey accompanied by a well-powered, pre-registered experiment may be appropriate for publication without further data. Similarly, studies with smaller, difficult to obtain samples may be appropriate in the context of other studies.

Statement of limitations following the abstract

A statement of limitations should follow the abstract. Using up to 200 words, this statement should detail the internal, construct, statistical, and external validity limitations of the research for nonspecialized audiences.

Statement of authors contributions

Please provide a statement of the contributions of each author in terms of conceptualization, design and data collection, and writing.

We strongly recommend that introductory materials (the introduction and any introduction to studies) along with the discussion of findings ( Discussion and General Discussion sections) total no more than 3,500 words .

General conciseness of Methods and Results Sections

The Methods and Results sections should be as concise as possible and details that might be of interest when replicating the study should appear in a supplement. For example, headings for each dependent measure within the Results section should typically be avoided. Materials should not be included in the Methods sections.

Statement and table of limitations

All empirical research has limitations, and we strive to avoid overclaiming and communicate the boundaries of our knowledge to the public, including the press. The examples of a statement and a table of limitations below were developed based on a published paper. Authors may find different ways of conveying the same information and provide further details as required by the research they report. The general goal is to convey limitations as completely and succinctly as possible.

Connor, P., Weeks, M., Glaser, J., Chen, S., & Keltner, D. (2023). Intersectional implicit bias: Evidence for asymmetrically compounding bias and the predominance of target gender. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 124(1) :22-48. 10.1037/pspa0000314. Epub 2022 May 19. PMID: 35587425.

Statement of limitations

Our research examined implicit evaluations of complex social targets who differ in demographic dimensions such as gender, race, and social class. Although we examined implicit measures of bias, the absence of behavioral measures makes our results silent to overt consequences of bias or interpersonal interactions in the real world. Our conclusions about the dominance of gender and class had high statistical power and should be reproducible with similar US samples in the short term. However, evolving social conditions for different demographic groups may change these findings in the longer term. The analyses concerning the absence of interactions among dimensions are less highly powered and need to be replicated with larger samples or more sensitive experimental methods. Also, although the studies were conducted with both headshots and full-body photographs, we did not study target differences in behavior, including how members of different groups communicate and themselves respond to different perceivers. Similarly, we did not study the different contexts of social targets, including differential levels of exclusion that can affect how they are perceived beyond their photographs.

Assessment of limitations

Internal validity.

Dimension: Is the phenomenon diagnosed with experimental methods? Assessment: Yes

Dimension: Is the phenomenon diagnosed with longitudinal methods? Assessment: No

Dimension: Were the manipulations validated with manipulation checks, pretest data, or outcome data? Assessment: Outcome data in Study 1 and pretest data in Study 2

Dimension: What possible artifacts were ruled out? Assessment: We ruled out the possibility that our results were due to using headshots instead of full-body photographs displaying richer information. We also ruled out the possibility that low levels of racial bias produced our results.

Statistical validity

Dimension: Was the statistical power at least 80%? Assessment: It was for the main effects but not for interactions

Dimension: Was the reliability of the dependent measure established in this publication or elsewhere in the literature? Assessment: Yes, we obtained split-half reliability coefficients in this paper.

Dimension: If covariates are used, have the researchers ensured they are no affected by the experimental manipulation before including them in comparisons across experimental groups? Assessment: Not applicable

Dimension: Were the distributional properties of the variables examined and did the variables have sufficient variability to verify effects? Assessment: Yes

Generalizability to different methods

Dimension: Were different experimental manipulations used? Assessment: We used headshots and full-body photos. However, we did used a single measure of bias, which is implicit. We used only the IAT and no other measures of attitudes. We did not use measures of behavior.

Generalizability to field settings

Dimension: Was the phenomenon assessed in a field setting? Assessment: No

Dimension: Are the methods artificial? Assessment: Yes, the methods are highly artificial

Generalizability to times and populations

Dimension: Are the results generalizable to different years and historic periods? Assessment: This was not tested, but, given changing contexts of social biases, results may be different for other historic periods.

Dimension: Are the results generalizable across populations (e.g., different ages, cultures, or nationalities)? Assessment: This was not tested, but, given that all studies included US samples, results will likely differ in other populations.

Theoretical limitations

Dimension: What are the main theoretical limitations? Assessment: Our studies tested hypotheses about additive and interactive combinations of demographic attributes as well as differences in the dominance of some attributes versus others. However, imitations include (a) the lack of consideration of different contexts in which intersectional biases might emerge and (b) lack of investigation of the underlying processes leading to our results.

Table of limitations

To ensure that limitations are properly considered and concisely communicated, the manuscript should include a table of limitations in which authors will list points of uncertainty, including aspects of reproducibility and generalizability to future and different settings as well as different samples. One paragraph of the General Discussion should complement the content of the table, explaining how the methods and sampling may shape the conclusions that can be drawn from the present work, boundaries of the current theory, and/or new hypotheses stemming from these considerations. This table, which does not count toward the limit of 3,500 words, should be creatively used to offset the word limit and respond to reviewers’ concerns.

Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes

Sandra L. Murray, PhD Department of Psychology University at Buffalo, State University of New York Buffalo, NY, 14260-4110

Submit Manuscript to Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes Section

Please submit manuscripts to the editorial office of Sandra L. Murray, PhD, electronically through the Manuscript Submission Portal in Microsoft Word (.docx) or LaTex (.tex) as a zip file with an accompanied Portable Document Format (.pdf) of the manuscript file.

Relationships between people, whether between friends, romantic partners, parents and children, coworkers, ingroups, outgroups, communities, or cultural groups, constitute the essential fabric of human existence. Submissions to JPSP:IRGP should advance understanding of how such relationships function; submissions that increase our understanding of how such relationships function in different sociocultural contexts will be especially welcomed.

In evaluating submissions (both original research and meta-analyses), our editorial team will prioritize science that offers novel theoretical insights and makes new and important discoveries that further our understanding of the relationships that unite/ divide humanity. Published articles will represent the best (i.e., most theoretically innovative and empirically rigorous) of the papers that our community of scholars submits.

Published articles will be written to reach the widest possible audience, putting a premium on the concise and clear communication of theory and limiting the number of studies presented in the manuscript itself to those that provide the most methodologically rigorous tests of the study hypotheses (to a maximum of 5). In evaluating submissions, our editorial team will hold high, but attainable standards. We will heavily weigh the difficulty of the hypothesis test, recognizing that especially rigorous/intensive methodologies may yield compelling conclusions with fewer than 5 studies. That is, all else being equal, we will prioritize the quality of the studies over the quantity of the studies. We will also recognize that papers can make innovative theoretical contributions without addressing every alternative or mechanism and that nonsignificant or anomalous effects can arise even when the overall support for the study hypotheses is robust.

Submissions can make innovative theoretical contributions in a number of ways (adapted from JPSP: ASC ), including:

(a) developing a new theory and offering new evidence to support it, (b) using an existing theory to explain a new phenomenon, (c) making novel connections between two theories to address new empirical questions, (d) using an existing theory to integrate previously unconnected phenomena, (e) providing a new mechanistic explanation for established phenomena, (f) conceptualizing moderators that explain conflicting predictions in the literature or help us understand the conditions under which an established phenomenon occurs,(g) introducing new elements to a theory that failed to explain a phenomenon, (h) introducing a new theoretical construct and demonstrating its importance, and (i) examining an existing/new theory or phenomenon in an understudied population because the power of our explanatory models rests on research that represents the diversity of human experiences.

Submission guidelines

• Submissions can report a maximum of 5 studies in the manuscript text. Any studies conducted to test the study hypotheses that are not reported in the manuscript must be reported in the supplemental materials, with the results of these studies summarized briefly in the manuscript text. The reports of any such studies in the supplemental document should be complete, with the main measures of interest (those overlapping with measures reported in the main text) and associated results reported first, followed by a listing of any additional measures collected.
• Introductory and discussion sections are limited to no more than 5,000 words in total (including general and study-specific introductions and discussions). This word count must be noted on the title page.
• Results sections are to be written to be accessible to readers with general statistical expertise, relying on figures and explanatory text to communicate the findings and relegating any more complex and detailed justification of the statistical methods to tables, notes, and/or supplementary materials. Authors are to prioritize integrative analyses across data sets and/or meta-analyses whenever possible, also including the main measures of interest from any studies reported only in the supplemental materials.
• Authors are to include a focused discussion of salient alternative explanations for the reported findings. Alternative explanations may include questions of construct validity (e.g., an alternative conceptualization of the meaning of a manipulation/measure), alternative/additional mechanisms or mediators, or alternative causal models, etc. Whenever possible, authors are to describe how the reported study design/data can be used to address such limitations and/or the type of study design/data needed to address such alternatives in the future. Details about analyses conducted to rule out alternative explanations can be provided in the supplementary online materials. Alternative explanations can be raised/addressed in the discussion text and/or tables. Information provided in tables will not contribute to the word limit.
• Authors are to acknowledge (a) points of theoretical connection/disconnection to related theories and (b) how readily the findings may generalize to non-studied populations.
• Authors are to embed tables and figures in the manuscript text.
• Any supplementary online materials must include a table of contents.

Personality Processes and Individual Differences

To submit to the editorial office of Richard Lucas, PhD, please submit manuscripts electronically through the Manuscript Submission Portal in Word Document format (.doc).

Submit Manuscript to Personality Processes and Individual Differences Section

Richard Lucas Department of Psychology  Michigan State University  East Lansing, MI 48824

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Personality Processes and Individual Differences now requires that a cover letter be submitted with all new submissions.

The cover letters should:

• Include the author's postal address, e-mail address, telephone number, and fax number for future correspondence
• State that the manuscript is original, not previously published, and not under concurrent consideration elsewhere
• Indicate whether a previous version of the submitted manuscript was previously rejected from any section of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology ; and if so, identify the action editor handling the previous submission, provide the prior manuscript #, and describe how the present article differs from the previously rejected one
• State that the data were collected in a manner consistent with ethical standards for the treatment of human subjects
• Inform the journal editor of the existence of any published work using the same data (in whole or in part) as was used in the present manuscript; if such publications exist, describe the extent and nature of any overlap between the present submission and the previously published work
• Mention any supplemental material being submitting for the online version of the article

Authors are also required to embed tables and figures within the manuscript, instead of providing these after the references.

Manuscript preparation

Review APA's Journal Manuscript Preparation Guidelines before submitting your article.

Double-space all copy. Other formatting instructions, as well as instructions on preparing tables, figures, references, metrics, and abstracts, appear in the Manual . Additional guidance on APA Style is available on the APA Style website .

Cumulative line numbers must be included with all submissions.

Masked review policy

The journal has adopted a policy of masked review for all submissions. The cover letter should include all authors' names and institutional affiliations. The first page of text should omit this information but should include the title of the manuscript and the date it is submitted. Every effort should be made to see that the manuscript itself contains no clues to the authors' identity, including grant numbers, names of institutions providing IRB approval, self-citations, and links to online repositories for data, materials, code, or preregistrations (e.g., Create a View-only Link for a Project ).

Word limits

Although papers should be written as succinctly as possible, there is no formal word limit on submissions.

Author contributions statements using CRediT

The APA Publication Manual (7th ed.) stipulates that “authorship encompasses…not only persons who do the writing but also those who have made substantial scientific contributions to a study.” In the spirit of transparency and openness, the  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology  has adopted the Contributor Roles Taxonomy (CRediT) to describe each author's individual contributions to the work. CRediT offers authors the opportunity to share an accurate and detailed description of their diverse contributions to a manuscript.

Submitting authors will be asked to identify the contributions of all authors at initial submission according to this taxonomy. If the manuscript is accepted for publication, the CRediT designations will be published as an author contributions statement in the author note of the final article. All authors should have reviewed and agreed to their individual contribution(s) before submission.

CRediT includes 14 contributor roles, as described below:

• Conceptualization: Ideas; formulation or evolution of overarching research goals and aims.
• Data curation: Management activities to annotate (produce metadata), scrub data and maintain research data (including software code, where it is necessary for interpreting the data itself) for initial use and later reuse.
• Formal analysis: Application of statistical, mathematical, computational, or other formal techniques to analyze or synthesize study data.
• Funding acquisition: Acquisition of the financial support for the project leading to this publication.
• Investigation: Conducting a research and investigation process, specifically performing the experiments, or data/evidence collection.
• Methodology: Development or design of methodology; creation of models.
• Project administration: Management and coordination responsibility for the research activity planning and execution.
• Resources: Provision of study materials, reagents, materials, patients, laboratory samples, animals, instrumentation, computing resources, or other analysis tools.
• Software: Programming, software development; designing computer programs; implementation of the computer code and supporting algorithms; testing of existing code components.
• Supervision: Oversight and leadership responsibility for the research activity planning and execution, including mentorship external to the core team.
• Validation: Verification, whether as a part of the activity or separate, of the overall replication/reproducibility of results/experiments and other research outputs.
• Visualization: Preparation, creation and/or presentation of the published work, specifically visualization/data presentation.
• Writing—original draft: Preparation, creation and/or presentation of the published work, specifically writing the initial draft (including substantive translation).
• Writing—review and editing: Preparation, creation and/or presentation of the published work by those from the original research group, specifically critical review, commentary or revision—including pre- or post-publication stages.

Authors can claim credit for more than one contributor role, and the same role can be attributed to more than one author.

Abstract and keywords

All manuscripts must include an abstract containing a maximum of 250 words typed on a separate page. After the abstract, please supply up to five keywords or brief phrases.

List references in alphabetical order. Each listed reference should be cited in text, and each text citation should be listed in the references section.

Examples of basic reference formats:

Journal article

McCauley, S. M., & Christiansen, M. H. (2019). Language learning as language use: A cross-linguistic model of child language development. Psychological Review , 126 (1), 1–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000126

Authored book

Brown, L. S. (2018). Feminist therapy (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000092-000

Chapter in an edited book

Balsam, K. F., Martell, C. R., Jones. K. P., & Safren, S. A. (2019). Affirmative cognitive behavior therapy with sexual and gender minority people. In G. Y. Iwamasa & P. A. Hays (Eds.), Culturally responsive cognitive behavior therapy: Practice and supervision (2nd ed., pp. 287–314). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000119-012

All data, program code and other methods must be cited in the text and listed in the References section.

Data set citation

Alegria, M., Jackson, J. S., Kessler, R. C., & Takeuchi, D. (2016). Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Surveys (CPES), 2001–2003 [Data set]. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR20240.v8

Software/Code citation

Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package.  Journal of Statistical Software , 36(3), 1–48. https://www.jstatsoft.org/v36/i03/

Wickham, H. et al., (2019). Welcome to the tidyverse. Journal of Open Source Software, 4 (43), 1686, https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.01686

All data, program code, and other methods must be appropriately cited in the text and listed in the references section.

Use Word's insert table function when you create tables. Using spaces or tabs in your table will create problems when the table is typeset and may result in errors.

Preferred formats for graphics files are TIFF and JPG, and preferred format for vector-based files is EPS. Graphics downloaded or saved from web pages are not acceptable for publication. Multipanel figures (i.e., figures with parts labeled a, b, c, d, etc.) should be assembled into one file. When possible, please place symbol legends below the figure instead of to the side.

• All color line art and halftones: 300 DPI
• Black and white line tone and gray halftone images: 600 DPI

Line weights

• Color (RGB, CMYK) images: 2 pixels
• Grayscale images: 4 pixels
• Stroke weight: 0.5 points

APA offers authors the option to publish their figures online in color without the costs associated with print publication of color figures.

The same caption will appear on both the online (color) and print (black and white) versions. To ensure that the figure can be understood in both formats, authors should add alternative wording (e.g., “the red (dark gray) bars represent”) as needed.

For authors who prefer their figures to be published in color both in print and online, original color figures can be printed in color at the editor's and publisher's discretion provided the author agrees to pay:

• $900 for one figure
• An additional $600 for the second figure
• An additional $450 for each subsequent figure

Display equations

We strongly encourage you to use MathType (third-party software) or Equation Editor 3.0 (built into pre-2007 versions of Word) to construct your equations, rather than the equation support that is built into Word 2007 and Word 2010. Equations composed with the built-in Word 2007/Word 2010 equation support are converted to low-resolution graphics when they enter the production process and must be rekeyed by the typesetter, which may introduce errors.

To construct your equations with MathType or Equation Editor 3.0:

• Go to the Text section of the Insert tab and select Object.
• Select MathType or Equation Editor 3.0 in the drop-down menu.

If you have an equation that has already been produced using Microsoft Word 2007 or 2010 and you have access to the full version of MathType 6.5 or later, you can convert this equation to MathType by clicking on MathType Insert Equation. Copy the equation from Microsoft Word and paste it into the MathType box. Verify that your equation is correct, click File, and then click Update. Your equation has now been inserted into your Word file as a MathType Equation.

Use Equation Editor 3.0 or MathType only for equations or for formulas that cannot be produced as Word text using the Times or Symbol font.

Computer code

Because altering computer code in any way (e.g., indents, line spacing, line breaks, page breaks) during the typesetting process could alter its meaning, we treat computer code differently from the rest of your article in our production process. To that end, we request separate files for computer code.

In online supplemental materials

We request that runnable source code be included as supplemental material to the article. For more information, visit Supplementing Your Article With Online Material .

In the text of the article

If you would like to include code in the text of your published manuscript, please submit a separate file with your code exactly as you want it to appear, using Courier New font with a type size of 8 points. We will make an image of each segment of code in your article that exceeds 40 characters in length. (Shorter snippets of code that appear in text will be typeset in Courier New and run in with the rest of the text.) If an appendix contains a mix of code and explanatory text, please submit a file that contains the entire appendix, with the code keyed in 8-point Courier New.

Submitting supplemental materials

APA can place supplemental materials online, available via the published article in the PsycArticles ® database. Please see Supplementing Your Article With Online Material for more details.

Permissions

Authors of accepted papers must obtain and provide to the editor on final acceptance all necessary permissions to reproduce in print and electronic form any copyrighted work, including test materials (or portions thereof), photographs, and other graphic images (including those used as stimuli in experiments).

On advice of counsel, APA may decline to publish any image whose copyright status is unknown.

• Download Permissions Alert Form (PDF, 13KB)

Academic writing and English language editing services

Authors who feel that their manuscript may benefit from additional academic writing or language editing support prior to submission are encouraged to seek out such services at their host institutions, engage with colleagues and subject matter experts, and/or consider several vendors that offer discounts to APA authors .

Please note that APA does not endorse or take responsibility for the service providers listed. It is strictly a referral service.

Use of such service is not mandatory for publication in an APA journal. Use of one or more of these services does not guarantee selection for peer review, manuscript acceptance, or preference for publication in any APA journal.

Publication policies

For full details on publication policies, including use of Artificial Intelligence tools, please see APA Publishing Policies .

APA policy prohibits an author from submitting the same manuscript for concurrent consideration by two or more publications.

See also APA Journals ® Internet Posting Guidelines .

APA requires authors to reveal any possible conflict of interest in the conduct and reporting of research (e.g., financial interests in a test or procedure, funding by pharmaceutical companies for drug research).

• Download Full Disclosure of Interests Form (PDF, 41KB)

In light of changing patterns of scientific knowledge dissemination, APA requires authors to provide information on prior dissemination of the data and narrative interpretations of the data/research appearing in the manuscript (e.g., if some or all were presented at a conference or meeting, posted on a listserv, shared on a website, including academic social networks like ResearchGate, etc.). This information (2–4 sentences) must be provided as part of the author note.

See APA’s Publishing Policies page for more information on publication policies, including information on author contributorship and responsibilities of authors, author name changes after publication, the use of generative artificial intelligence, funder information and conflict-of-interest disclosures, duplicate publication, data publication and reuse, and preprints.

Ethical Principles

It is a violation of APA Ethical Principles to publish “as original data, data that have been previously published” (Standard 8.13).

In addition, APA Ethical Principles specify that “after research results are published, psychologists do not withhold the data on which their conclusions are based from other competent professionals who seek to verify the substantive claims through reanalysis and who intend to use such data only for that purpose, provided that the confidentiality of the participants can be protected and unless legal rights concerning proprietary data preclude their release” (Standard 8.14).

APA expects authors to adhere to these standards. Specifically, APA expects authors to have their data available throughout the editorial review process and for at least 5 years after the date of publication.

Authors are required to state in writing that they have complied with APA ethical standards in the treatment of their sample, human or animal, or to describe the details of treatment.

• Download Certification of Compliance With APA Ethical Principles Form (PDF, 26KB)

The APA Ethics Office provides the full Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct electronically on its website in HTML, PDF, and Word format. You may also request a copy by emailing or calling the APA Ethics Office (202-336-5930). You may also read "Ethical Principles," December 1992, American Psychologist , Vol. 47, pp. 1597–1611.

Other information

Visit the Journals Publishing Resource Center for more resources for writing, reviewing, and editing articles for publishing in APA journals.

• View Attitudes and Social Cognition Section Editorial Board
• View Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes Section Editorial Board
• View Personality Processes and Individual Differences Section Editorial Board

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Transparency and Openness Promotion

APA endorses the Transparency and Openness Promotion (TOP) Guidelines by a community working group in conjunction with the Center for Open Science ( Nosek et al. 2015 ). The TOP Guidelines cover eight fundamental aspects of research planning and reporting that can be followed by journals and authors at three levels of compliance.

• Level 1: Disclosure—The article must disclose whether or not the materials are posted to a trusted repository.
• Level 2: Requirement—The article must share materials via a trusted repository when legally and ethically permitted (or disclose the legal and/or ethical restriction when not permitted).
• Level 3: Verification—A third party must verify that the standard is met.

As of July 1, 2021, empirical research, including meta-analyses, submitted to the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology  must, at a minimum, meet Level 2 (Requirement) for all aspects of research planning and reporting. Authors should include a subsection in their methods description titled “Transparency and Openness.” This subsection should detail the efforts the authors have made to comply with the Transparency and Openness Promotion (TOP) guidelines.

The list below summarizes the minimal TOP requirements of the journal. Please refer to the Center for Open Science TOP guidelines for details, and contact the editors with any further questions:

• Attitudes and Social Cognition : Shinobu Kitayama, PhD
• Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes : Colin Wayne Leach, PhD
• Personality Processes and Individual Differences : Richard Lucas, PhD

Authors must share data, materials, and code via  trusted repositories (e.g., APA’s repository on the Open Science Framework (OSF)), and APA encourages investigators to preregister their studies and analysis plans prior to conducting the research. There are many available preregistration forms (e.g., the APA Preregistration for Quantitative Research in Psychology template, ClininalTrials.gov , or other preregistration templates available via OSF ). Completed preregistration forms should be posted on a publicly accessible registry system (e.g., OSF , ClinicalTrials.gov, or other trial registries in the WHO Registry Network). Trusted repositories adhere to policies that make data discoverable, accessible, usable, and preserved for the long term. Trusted repositories also assign unique and persistent identifiers.

A list of participating journals is also available from APA.

The following list presents the eight fundamental aspects of research planning and reporting, the TOP level required by the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , and a brief description of the journal's policy.

• Citation: Level 2, Requirement—All data, program code, and other methods developed by others must be cited in the text and listed in the References section.
• Data Transparency: Level 2, Requirement—Article states whether the raw and/or processed data on which study conclusions are based are posted to a trusted repository and how to access them. If the data cannot be made available, the article states the legal or ethical reasons why they are not available.
• Analytic Methods (Code) Transparency: Level 2, Requirement—Article states whether computer code or syntax needed to reproduce analyses in an article is posted to a trusted repository and how to access it. If it cannot be made available, the article states the legal or ethical reasons why it is not available.
• Research Materials Transparency: Level 2, Requirement—Article states whether materials described in the Method section are posted to a trusted repository and how to access them. If they cannot be made available, the article states the legal or ethical reasons why they are not available.
• Design and Analysis Transparency (Reporting Standards): Level 2, Requirement—Article must comply with APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS-Quant and/or MARS) and disclose all decisions that were data-dependent (e.g., deciding when to stop data collection, what observations to exclude, what covariates to include, and what analyses to conduct after rather than before seeing the data).
• Study Preregistration: Level 2, Requirement—Article states whether the study design and (if applicable) hypotheses of any of the work reported was preregistered and, if so, how to access it. Access to the preregistration should be available at submission. Authors must submit a masked copy via stable link or supplemental material.
• Analysis Plan Preregistration: Level 2, Requirement—Article states whether any of the work reported was preregistered with an analysis plan and, if so, how to access it. Access to the preregistration should be available at submission. Authors must submit a masked copy via stable link or supplemental material.
• Replication: Level 3, Verification—The journal publishes replications and Registered Reports.

Other open science initiatives

• Open Science badges: Not offered
• Public significance statements: Not offered
• Author contribution statements using CRediT: Required
• Registered Reports: Published
• Replications: Published

Explore open science at APA .

Attitudes and Social Cognition Section

Inclusive study designs.

• Diverse samples
• Registered Reports

Definitions and further details on inclusive study designs are available on the Journals EDI homepage .

Inclusive reporting standards

• Bias-free language and community-driven language guidelines (required)
• Author contribution roles using CRediT (required)
• Data sharing and data availability statements (required)
• Participant sample descriptions (required)

More information on this journal’s reporting standards is listed under the submission guidelines tab .

Other EDI offerings

Orcid reviewer recognition.

Open Research and Contributor ID (ORCID) Reviewer Recognition provides a visible and verifiable way for journals to publicly credit reviewers without compromising the confidentiality of the peer-review process. This journal has implemented the ORCID Reviewer Recognition feature in Editorial Manager, meaning that reviewers can be recognized for their contributions to the peer-review process.

Masked peer review

This journal offers masked peer review (where both the authors’ and reviewers’ identities are not known to the other). Research has shown that masked peer review can help reduce implicit bias against traditionally female names or early-career scientists with smaller publication records (Budden et al., 2008; Darling, 2015).

Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes Section

• Collaborative research models
• Year(s) of data collection (recommended)
• Sample justifications (recommended)
• Constraints on Generality (COG) statements (recommended)
• Inclusive reference lists (recommended)

Pathways to authorship and editorship

Reviewer database diversification.

This journal section encourages diversification of reviewer database through editorial team suggestions and calls from the editor at talks and conferences.

Personality Processes and Individual Differences Section

Journal equity, diversity, and inclusion statement.

Personality psychologists focus on the ways that people differ from one another. Appreciating these differences is essential for the quality of research and theory that the field produces. Yet it is clear that currently, neither the authors nor the participants in our journals reflect the diversity of the populations we seek to understand. This affects the conclusions that one can draw from this work, while also having broader impacts on equity and inclusion in science and beyond. Thus, identifying steps to improve this situation will be an important goal for our team.

The most immediate step will be to expand our efforts to recruit editors, editorial board members, and reviewers from diverse backgrounds. In addition, our team has been paying close attention to concerns raised about biases in the evaluation of work that includes samples from under-represented groups or from authors from under-represented backgrounds. For instance, studies with samples from under-represented groups have sometimes been criticized for a lack of generalizability, whereas samples of college students get a pass on this issue (Atherton, 2021). We pledge to watch for these problematic comments in reviews and decision letters to reduce the negative impact that such biases have. Anyone who has concerns about their experiences during the review process can contact the editor-in-chief at any time.

We also explicitly affirm the value of including samples that go beyond the typical college student and online convenience samples that have been the primary focus of research in many psychological journals. There are many different ways that a paper’s contribution can warrant publication in JPSP: PPID and testing ideas in under-studied samples is one of them.

Finally, we also believe that methodological diversity is important, both as a way of broadening the base of evidence that our journal publishes, but also as a way of broadening the perspectives on personality psychology that are represented. Thus, we are open to research that contributes to our understanding of personality processes and individual differences using a broad range of approaches including research that links personality psychology with theories and methodological approaches from other disciplines.

Atherton, O. E. (2021, July). Deconstructing Problematic Peer Reviews in Personality Psychology and Some Calls to Action. Biennial Conference of the Association for Research in Personality.

• Participant sample descriptions (recommended)

Editorial fellowships

Editorial fellowships help early-career psychologists gain firsthand experience in scholarly publishing and editorial leadership roles. This journal offers an editorial fellowship program for early-career psychologists from historically excluded communities.

Announcements

• New editor appointed

From Monitor on Psychology

• A broadening field The new editor of Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes strives for inclusivity (October 2013)

Editor Spotlight

• Read an interview with Editor Sandra Murray, PhD
• Read an interview with Editor Dolores Albarracín, PhD
• Read an interview with Editor Richard E. Lucas, PhD
• Inaugural Editorial, JPSP: ASC, 2024 (PDF, 133KB)
• Richard E. Lucas, editor, JSPP-PPID section, November 2021 (PDF, 71KB)
• Colin Wayne Leach, editor, JPSP-IRGP section, December 2019 (PDF, 85KB)
• Shinobu Kitayama, editor, JPSP-ASC section, March 2017 (PDF, 30KB)
• Kerry Kawakami, editor, JPSP-IRGP section, January 2015 (PDF, 16KB)
• M. Lynne Cooper, editor, JPSP-PPID section, March 2016 (PDF, 30KB)

From APA Journals Article Spotlight ®

• Toppled statues and peaceful marches: How do privileged group members react to protests for social equality?

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The field of social psychology is a scientific method for understanding the effects of living in groups. This means that social psychology studies the manner in which living in and relating to groups impacts people in their mental and emotional experience. The relationship of the individual and the group exists at two distinct levels. One is the objective level of people interact; the other is the subjective level where a person relates in a subjective fashion to the presence of others. The objective level can be considered to be what is indicated by actual events. The subjective level can be viewed as how those events are interpreted or responded to by an individual. The science of social psychology is based on empirical data and rational study and investigation.

Social psychology is very different from sociology which is a field that studies the history of human society, as well as studying its processes and institutions. For example, while a social phycologist might study personality disorders in relation to social pressures, a sociologist would instead study the origin of a particlar social institution such as marriage. Social psychology is also very different than clinical psychology, which is the science of treating and preventing psychological illnesses and disorders. The clinical psychologist conducts research in areas of mental illness and also administers treatments for psychological stress or illness.

Social psychology is also very different from philosophy which is a field that studies the nature of existence, morality, consciousness, and logic. A philosopher might examine the nature of learning or the relative value of knowledge, whereas a social psychologist would study institutions of learning and the individual relation to organized religion. One thing that all of the aforementioned fields share is the application of rational thinking and the use of the scientific method to carry out their studies and actions. Te main differences are in regard to the types of problems and ideas that are pursued.

B. Bowins’ article, “Personality Disorders: A Dimensional Defense Mechanism Approach” (2010) uses a scientific approach to study the relationship between mental illness based in personality disorders and the relation of the individual to groups. According to Bowin, personality disorders often reflect “characteristic ways of defending against disturbing emotional input to preserve psychological functioning.” For Bowins, many personality disorders are “extensions of normal defensive processes” (Bowins, 2010) and can be explained by the way

that personality is impacted by the demands of living in a group. I feel that Bowins’ thesis is very strongly supported in the article. I believe that many personality disorders reflect the way that individuals respond to the pressures, expectations and threats of living in society. The article included a discussion of several types of personality disorders and Bowins offered a solid basis of argument for his ideas.

Reading the article actually helped me to reach my own definition of the concept: personality. For me, personality is the basis of how an individual responds emotionally, mentally, and practically in relation to others. It is also a set of expectations, desires, and self-identifying principles that each person experiences subjectively that are based in their relationship to society. Personality is closely connected to self-identity. It is even of more significance in social identity. The characteristics and “shape” of any given personality is largely based on the way the individual views themselves in relation to society as well as the way the individual believes themselves to be perceived by others.

Bowins, B. (2010). Personality Disorders: A Dimensional Defense Mechanism Approach. American Journal of Psychotherapy , 64(2), 153+.

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How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

• Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
• Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
• Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
• Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
• Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

• Make your P oint.
• E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
• Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

• Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
• Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
• Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

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Home / Online Bachelor’s Degree Programs / Bachelor of Arts in Psychology Online / Bachelor’s in Psychology Resources / What Is Social Psychology? Theories, Examples, and Definition

What Is Social Psychology? Definition, Key Terms, and Examples What Is Social Psychology? Definition, Key Terms, and Examples What Is Social Psychology? Definition, Key Terms, and Examples

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Social psychologists explore the power of thought and perception to shape action and cement emotional connections. William Shakespeare provided one of the earliest known examples of an insight worthy of a social psychologist in his most psychologically complex play, “Hamlet.”

When the beleaguered prince of Denmark explains why he considers his native country a prison rather than a paradise, he reflects: “Why then … there is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so. To me it is a prison.” Whether presented as a trick of the mind (“thinking makes it so”) or as an exploration of everyday thought and action, social psychology is concerned with explaining some of the deepest mysteries of human relationships and behavior.

What is social psychology? It is a scientific exploration of who we are, who we think we are, and how those perceptions shape our experiences as individuals and as a society.

Social psychology is one of the broadest and most complex subcategories of psychology because it is concerned with self-perception and the behavioral interplay among the individuals who make up society. What follows is an overview of social psychology as a science, including its origins, its theories of human cognition and behavior, and the educational pathways to becoming a social psychologist, which can include earning a  Bachelor of Arts in Psychology degree .

Social Psychology Definition

Today, researchers and academics examine nearly every aspect of human existence through a psychological lens. The American Psychological Association (APA) lists 15 subfields of psychology, including clinical psychology, brain and cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, and quantitative psychology.

Social psychology is the study of how individual or group behavior is influenced by the presence and behavior of others.

The APA defines social psychology as “the study of how an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected” by other people, whether “actual, imagined, or symbolically represented.” In essence, even just imagining another person watching you influences how you will process information, behave, and react — and this is something social psychologists strive to understand.

What Questions Does Social Psychology Answer?

The major question social psychologists ponder is this: How and why are people’s perceptions and actions influenced by environmental factors, such as social interaction?

In seeking the answer to that basic question, researchers conduct empirical studies to answer specific questions such as:

• How do individuals alter their thoughts and decisions based on social interactions?
• Is human behavior an accurate indication of personality?
• How goal oriented is social behavior?
• How does social perception influence behavior?
• How do potentially destructive social attitudes, such as prejudice, form?

For example, have you ever noticed you act and think differently among people you know than you do among strangers? Have you ever wondered why that is? Social psychologists spend their careers trying to determine the answers to questions like these and what they might mean.

The Origins of the Social Psychology Field

Psychology as a field of scientific exploration remains relatively new, yet its importance as a discipline is clear from the well-known names and concepts of early 20th-century research into human behavior: Pavlov and his salivating dog, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and Jung’s archetypes of the unconscious.

These and other researchers wanted to uncover how human perceptions — of oneself, of others, and of the world at large — influence behavior. As the field of psychology matured, researchers began to focus on specialized aspects of the mind and behavior. This gave rise to subcategories of psychology, including social psychology.

Social psychology has been a formal discipline since the turn of the 20th century. An early study in 1898 of “social facilitation” by Indiana University psychology researcher Norman Triplett sought to explain why bicycle racers seemed to exceed their solo performances when they competed directly against others.

Later experiments sought to explain how and why certain artists and performers seemed to shine in front of an audience, while others faltered. During World War II, researchers conducted studies into the effects of propaganda on the behavior of entire populations.

What Is a Social Psychologist?

Social psychology professionals, such as social psychologists, seek to understand the complex interplay between social factors and human behavior. Specific areas of study include:

• Group dynamics and attitudes
• Interpersonal relationships
• Implicit bias and prejudice
• Criminal activity

Social psychologists use a variety of research methods, including experiments, surveys, and observations, to study human behavior in social contexts. They apply their findings to a wide range of fields, including business, law, education, healthcare, and public policy, to help solve social problems and improve people’s lives.

Social Psychologist Salary

Social psychologists had a median annual salary of $81,040, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) in 2021. The BLS estimates that the number of people working as psychologists will grow 6% between 2021 and 2031, as fast as the average growth projected for all professions.

While becoming a social psychologist requires advanced education, starting off with a  bachelor’s degree in psychology  can be an important first step toward this career. Other professions that must consider social psychology principles include social worker, human resources specialist, and  career counselor .

What Is Social Psychology vs. Sociology?

Those interested in what social psychology is should understand the difference between this field and other academic disciplines. For example, social psychology and sociology are sometimes confused. This is understandable, because both fields of study are broadly concerned with the way human behavior shapes and is shaped by society.

The primary difference between the two is this: Social psychologists study individuals within a group; sociologists study groups of people.

As early as 1924, when both fields of study were just beginning to reach academic maturity, University of Missouri researcher Charles A. Ellwood sought to simplify the difference between the two. According to Ellwood:

• Sociology  is “the science of the origin, development, structure, and functioning of groups.”
• Social psychology  is “the study of the [individual psychological] origins involved in the development, structure, and functioning of social groups.”

Different Ways of Looking at Similar Issues

Naturally, the work done by both types of social scientists occasionally overlaps. A sociologist focuses on how the interplay among different groups of people — those with religious beliefs or ethnicity in common — affects the course of civilization.

This information could be considered a starting point for research by a social psychologist, who might use it to formulate a hypothesis about how an individual is affected by the group dynamic over the course of a lifetime.

For example, a sociologist might focus on the potential far-reaching effects on society of a new law, whereas a social psychologist might focus on how the new law might affect a specific person in the short term and long term.

Another way to think about the differences between social psychology and sociology is to consider the perception of the group dynamic.

For instance, a sociologist might conduct research into how a group of people acts as a unit, while a social psychologist might want to investigate how and why groups of people influence individuals — and why individual behaviors can influence groups of people.

Examples of Social Psychology Topics of Today

Early social psychologists concerned themselves with internal and external influences on individual behavior. British-born psychologist William McDougall’s 1908 publication, “An Introduction to Social Psychology,” focused on human instinct as the driving force behind social interactions.

More topics crowded under the social psychology umbrella with the 1920s work of brothers Floyd Henry Allport and Gordon Willard Allport. The Allports are credited with applying rigorous scientific theory and experimentation techniques to social psychology research.

This dynamic duo also conducted important studies into the development of attitudes, religious beliefs, and many other topics.

Social Psychology Examples

What social psychology is focused on is studying changes over time. Social psychology research has touched on nearly every facet of human personality in an attempt to understand the psychological influence of perception and human interaction. Of the topics currently being researched in social psychology, examples include:

• Leadership  — What personality traits define a leader? What is the role of a leader within a group? How do leaders exercise influence on groups and individuals?
• Aggression  — How is aggressive behavior defined? What triggers habitual aggressive behavior? What role does aggression play in self-preservation?
• Social perception  — How does an individual develop self-perception? How is self-perception shaped by environmental factors? What is the difference between the existential self and the categorical self?
• Group behavior  — What characteristics do groups share? How many people constitute a group? What dictates the structure of a group? Why do individuals gravitate to a particular group?
• Nonverbal behavior  — What nonlinguistic actions communicate thought or meaning? How are nonverbal cues developed and interpreted? What emotions do facial expressions, hand gestures, and other nonverbal behaviors communicate?
• Conformity  — What prompts individuals to change their perceptions to match that of a group or another person? How does an individual decide to accept influence from another or a group? What is the difference between outward conformity and internal conformity?
• Prejudice  — What causes someone to harbor prejudice against a member of a different social group? What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination? How are stereotypes used to build perceptions?

Examples of Social Psychology Theories

What social psychology is today can also be described in terms of the theories that social psychology devises to explain human behavior. Consider the following mainstream social psychology theories that include theories of social cognition, group behavior, and identity.

Social Cognition

Social cognition is a subtopic of social psychology. Its focus is the study of how and why we perceive ourselves and others as we do. This is important because, without an understanding of our self-perception, it is impossible to fully grasp how our actions are interpreted by others. Similarly, to understand why others act as they do toward us, we must rely on our perceptions of their thoughts and motivations.

Social psychologists conduct research into how and why certain life experiences influence our perceptions of ourselves and others. This key example of social psychology research seeks to understand how memory is processed and how it influences social cognition.

Early Development of Cognitive Perception

Social cognition research often involves an analysis of environmental factors in the early development of cognitive perception. For example, young children’s perceptions are based on an egocentric view — their views of themselves and the world are shaped by limited experience. They do not yet understand how to interpret their own emotions and actions, let alone those of others.

By adulthood, the ability to perceive emotions and understand behavior has developed with experience. Perceptions are formed and decisions are made based on that experience. A functioning adult can call on experience to answer questions like:

• Why do I think the way I do about a particular subject or person?
• How do my actions affect others?
• How should I respond to the actions of others?

The way individuals learn to answer these and other questions about their self-perception falls under the study of social cognition. Scientists explore the mental processes that affect the interplay among perception, memory, and thought in shaping personality and social interaction.

This information, in turn, helps researchers understand the dynamic between group behavior and the development of an individual’s social identity.

Group Behavior

Why are individuals drawn together to form groups? How does the group influence the behavior of an individual, and vice versa?

A study of group behavior attempts to answer these and other questions related to social cognition. It begins with the basic question: What is a group? There is no set definition of a group, but social psychologists generally agree that a group can be identified as a coherent entity made up of individuals who share certain beliefs or characteristics.

Examples of groups include religious affiliations, scientific societies, and political parties. This definition includes large groups, such as the population of a neighborhood or a city, and smaller groups, such as a nuclear family.

The observable actions of a group make up the definition of group behavior. Social psychologists who study group behavior want to know the underlying motivations of those actions, how they originated, how an individual functions within the group, and the role of leadership in the group dynamic.

For example, how and why do some groups act out of a collective sense of kindness and acceptance, while others seem motivated by prejudice and violence? How does the innate conflict between self-perception and external perception affect an individual’s influence within a group? Not only that, but how and why are individual interests, opinions, and abilities sometimes sublimated to the group’s collective purpose?

Group behavior can be studied through the lens of individual status within the group. The group’s patterns of individual relationships may predict the group’s cohesiveness, and they might help explain how and why one group is more productive than another.

An understanding of group behavior helps explain why individuals might make certain decisions under the influence of a group that they would not have made alone. This kind of personality change — a shift based on group membership — is covered under the topic of social identity theory.

Social Identity Theory

Psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner studied the effects of group membership on self-perception. They formulated social identity theory, which seeks to explain the relationship between group membership and the reinforcement of individual qualities such as pride and self-esteem.

According to Tajfel and Turner, individuals gravitate toward groups that are composed of people they admire or with whom they agree on important matters. Group members perceive themselves, at least in part, through the lens of their membership; they see themselves reflected by other members.

People who belong to groups are linked and governed by similarities. Group members’ self-identity is based on the shared attitudes, beliefs, and moral standards of the group. This explains why individuals in a group might act differently than they would act if they did not belong to the group. They behave as they believe a member of the group should behave, rather than acting out of personal motivation.

Another aspect of social identity theory is the tendency toward tribalism, or embracing “in-groups” while rejecting “out-groups.” The group socialization of an individual takes place in stages, according to Tajfel and Turner:

• Categorization  — Separating individuals based on characteristics such as ethnicity, occupation, or belief system
• Social identification  — Adopting the characteristics of a particular group
• Social comparison  — Seeking to draw favorable contrasts with other groups

Once individuals have thoroughly established their self-perception based on membership in an “in-group,” their mindset and behavior begin to reflect the expectations of the group.

In this way, individual social identity is sublimated to the group. Personal identity is exchanged for a sense of belonging, safety, and well-being.

Typical Social Psychology Curriculum

Social psychologists generally need to earn an advanced degree to work in clinical,  counseling , or research contexts.  Careers for psychology bachelor’s degree graduates  are available in the fields of human resources, market analytics, and survey research. Graduates who go on to earn a master’s degree or higher, such as a PhD in psychology or a Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) degree, may become qualified to work as social psychologists.

The typical social psychology  bachelor’s degree curriculum  includes courses in psychological research methods, research design, and applied statistics as well as courses in psychological theory, such as in abnormal psychology and developmental psychology across the lifespan.

Some social psychology professionals work in academic settings, conducting research and teaching students, while others work in applied settings, such as in government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and private corporations. Social psychology professionals may also work as consultants, helping individuals and organizations understand and manage social dynamics in their environments.

Pursue a Career in Social Psychology

A career in social psychology feeds a passion for understanding what motivates human behavior, and it requires extensive training in empirical research methods. What social psychology is has everything to do with the expertise that researchers develop in human relationships, self-perception, group dynamics, leadership, and many other areas of psychology.

Social psychology research is vital across multiple disciplines, including business, healthcare, economics, political science, and education. Are you interested in becoming a social psychology professional and doing this important work? Become immersed in the study of human behavior and psychological research by earning a Maryville University  online Bachelor of Arts in Psychology .

Recommended Readings

Forensic Psychology vs. Clinical Psychology: Choosing a Path

Marketing Psychology: Inside the Consumer’s Mind

Social Isolation Impact on Cognitive Health

American Psychological Association, Social Psychology

American Psychological Association, Social Psychology Studies Human Interactions

The Mead Project, “The Relations of Sociology and Social Psychology”

Simply Psychology, “Social Facilitation Theory: Definition and Examples”

Simply Psychology, “Social Identity Theory: Definition, History, Examples, & Facts”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Psychologists

Verywell Mind, “5 Important Concepts in Social Psychology”

Verywell Mind, “An Overview of Social Psychology”

Verywell Mind, “Social Cognition in Psychology: The Way We Think About Others”

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Social Psychology - Free Essay Examples And Topic Ideas

Social psychology studies how individuals are affected by others and the social environment. Essays on this topic could delve into the myriad theories and principles of social psychology, exploring topics like social influence, social perception, social interactions, and social identity. They might also discuss the application of social psychology in addressing real-world issues like prejudice, aggression, or prosocial behavior, and the role it plays in various societal phenomena. A substantial compilation of free essay instances related to Social Psychology you can find in Papersowl database. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

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Psychology Discussion

Essay on social psychology.

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In this essay we will discuss about Social Psychology. After reading this essay you will learn about: 1. Historical Background of Social Psychology 2. Definition of Social Psychology 3. Field, Scope, Aim and Problems 4. Relationship with Other Sciences 5. Applying Social Psychology 6. Status of Social Psychology in India.

• Essay on the Status of Social Psychology in India

1. Essay on the Historical Background of Social Psychology:

Social Psychology, being a branch of General Psychology, Greek philosophers like Aristotle and Plato talked a lot about this. Though social psychology did not exist then, people talked about things which came under the fold of social psychology. Particularly the problem of human nature was discussed by Aristotle and Plato in the book ‘Republic’ which maintains that man is essentially a product of the society.

So he explains human behaviour in terms of the influences of the society. According to All-port (1985) speculation about social behaviour has continued since the days of antiquity. Thomas Hobbes (1661) a political thinker and philosopher well known for his theory of social contact views that man being essentially selfish talks in terms of himself and is engaged in his selfish interest.

Thus conflict arises between man and society. On the other hand, society is there to control him even though it sprung up from the utter selfishness of the individual. Quite opposite to the view of Hobbes, Russeu a political thinker of human nature opined that man is unselfish and thinks in terms of others.

According to him conflict in the society is the result of civilization. Darwin (1859) published his famous book “Origin of Specis” with an outlook to establish the theory of evolution.

Social scientists tried to deal with the problems relating to human behaviour. From the standpoint of theory of evolution, Darwin’s theory of evolution added to Galton’s individual differences and made evolutionary concept much more prominent in the fields of social sciences.

Fransis Galton agreed to Darwin’s theory of evolution and accounted for the psychology of individual difference due to hereditary background which plays an important role in mental makeup.

Herbert Spencer talked of different stages of human behaviour from evolutional point of view. He talked of several stages in the development of human behaviour and one pattern of behaviour becomes the succession of previous one. Human beings develop behaviour which are the character of a particular stage.

Towards the end of the 19th century some sociologists in France were working upon problems which are of fundamental importance to social psychology. Gabriel Trade, one great social psychologist speaks how important is socialization in human life.

He talked a lot of law of limitation which is one of the several fundamental problems of social psychology. French sociologist LeBon did lot of work on the analysis of crowd mentality.

The study of crowd and group mind WQS then the most important subject matter of social psychology. LeBon found that there is a significant difference between the reaction of an individual in a group situation and in a lone situation. People at that time thought the individual mind different from the group mind.

The concept of group mind, crowd mind and collective mind came into existence during this period. Psychologists and sociologists thus thought social psychology can explain every human behaviour with the concept of group and collective phenomena. In the beginning of the 20th century, Durkheim also talked a good deal on the relations of individual and society.

He held that the individual has no separate existence except as a member of the society. Thus naturally the problem of relation between individual and society came to wide prominence. Field man (1985) holds that social psychology did not really emerge as a science until the very end of the 19th century.

Norman Triplett (1897) conducted the first laboratory experiment on the social facilitation to investigate how performance alone in a given task was inferior to performance in the presence of others or in a group situation.

Till this time, no book with the title of ‘Social Psychology’ was published. After 11 years the first two American Text books fully dedicated to Social Psychology were published. In 1908 E.A. Ross published his first book on Social Psychology.

In the same year ‘An Outline of Social Psychology’ authored by William McDougall was published which became very popular. McDougall who is widely known for his theory of instincts indicated in this book how a particular instinct is responsible for a particular behaviour.

Gradually towards 1912, in Germany many people began to start working upon human behaviour in lone and group situations. Experimental method got its scope in the field of social psychology as well. The behaviour of the individual in different situations were experimented and studied.

Since a number of people were doing the same experiment one had to think in terms of the other as the performance of different experimenters were to be compared.

This feeling was aroused in each and every subject working on such problems. While in a lone situation the subject may not be influenced by anybody as he thinks and works only in terms of himself, in a group situations he has to think in terms of others guided by factors relating to group behaviour.

Difference between group and lone situation was noticed by comparing the performances and output under these two situations.

Some people were working on problems like competition and rivalry and Moode (1908) is one of them. Tomes, Zanicke were also doing experimental studies on such problems of social importance because of the introduction of experimental method in social psychology.

The progress gradually became more rapid and a large number of books were published on social psychology. Many journals exclusively devoted themselves to publication of articles on social psychology.

Soon thereafter social psychology began to broaden its horizons by studying the influences of external factors on the individual with the publications of Allport’s Social Psychology in 1924. Specially F.H. All port (1924) did a lot of work by introducing the concept of social facilitation or collective mind.

Thus between 1920 to 1930 Sherif and Lewin came to lime light in the realm of social psychology with their work on the transmission of social norms and application of social psychological experimental techniques to social problems.

In the 1940s and 1950s there was an increasing orientation towards practical issues of social psychological problems like the study of prejudice, group behaviour, propaganda stereotype and attitude change.

The end of 1950 brought a turn towards more theoretical issues with a particular emphasis being placed on how people’s cognitions are affected by inconsistencies between behaviour and cognitions by the theory advanced by Leo Festinger (1957).

In 1960s thus there has a shift of interest towards ultra individual social processes and away from inter individual process. This led to a lot of research work on attribution which refers to the process by which one makes inferences regarding the causes of others behaviour. Thus in 1970s social cognition became the important area of work.

It seems that in 1980-90s social psychologists were moving backward to a problem solving orientation. Of late, social psychology is having greater influence on areas related to every ones lives so to say like medical care, law, business, arms negotiation, reduction of international tensions and cold war and many other important topics. Also theoretical researches are being done on social psychology.

According to Resemberg and Gara (1983), Oskamp (1984), both purely theoretical and applied research are seen as part of the mainstream of social psychology currently.

Experimental studies were accelerated for years together to explain the fact that group situations produce different effects in the behaviour of participating individuals. Grander Murphy published two important books named “Experimental Social Psychology” and “Minds of Men.”

Under the impact of sociological findings on groups, the experience and behaviour of the individual in actual group situations and in his culture were studied.

Emphasis was put on the emerging qualities and products in group situations. The study of structural properties typical to the group became the core of group studies. Important studies were also conducted and books written on Psychology of Ego involvement, “Concept of Frame of Reference,” Propaganda, Sociogram, Group dynamics etc.

Problems like group morale, attitude, leadership, which are so important also were investigated by that time. The intergroup and intragroup relations were also studied.

2. Essay on the Definition of Social Psychology:

Social psychology is defined by Ottoklienbrterg as the scientific study of the behaviour of the individuals as related to other individuals. These other individuals may influence the single individual or the group in a global way. Thus the behaviour of any individual is socially determined.

According of Kimballyoung (1946) “Social Psychology is the study of persons in their interaction with one another and with reference to the effects of this interplay upon the individual’s thoughts, feelings, emotions and habits.”

Kimballyoung while defining social psychology has emphasised the effect of social interaction (interaction between different individuals) on the mental process and personality development of individuals which is a very vital point.

All port has tried to approach social psychology from the angle of behaviour of individuals in their relations to other individuals and in social situations. He opines that social psychology is the study of behaviour of individuals in their relations to other individuals and in social situation.

He has emphasized on two basic factors in Social Psychology:

(i) Relationship of individuals with one another

(ii) The individual’s behaviour in social situations. Murphy says that social psychology is the study of the way in which the individual becomes a member of and functioning into social group. Kretch and Crutchfield say that social psychology is the science of behaviour of the individuals in the society. The whole individual as well as his total behaviour in a social situation is emphasised by them.

Mathur defines social psychology as the scientific study of the behaviour of an individual when he comes in contact with the other individuals or interacts with any social group or groups or is confronted with some social situation in which he participates consciously or unconsciously. Kupuswamy has opined that social psychology attempts to study the characteristics of various forms of social behaviour.

Social Psychology studies the behaviour of the individual in relation to the society or group and not the society or group itself. He defines social psychology as “the branch of knowledge which studies the relationships arising out of the interaction of individuals with each other in social situation. In brief it deals with thinking, feeling and acting of the individual in the society.”

An analysis of all these definitions would indicate that in all these definitions, study of the interaction of the individual with the society is emphasized. Briefly it can be said that social psychology is the study of psychology of the individual when confronted in a social situation. It basically deals .with social interaction which may not involve face to face contacts.

Social behaviour may also arise indirectly through the medium of symbols. Social psychology is therefore a basic social science in that it is concerned with every aspect and total behaviour of the individual in the society.

It may therefore be appropriate to define social psychology as the science of social behaviour of the individual where social behaviour indicates behaviour arising out of the interaction with the other members in the society. What is a social situation and what is a social behaviour?

A social situation includes various types of stimuli, like visual, auditory, and tactual and the attitudes, values and past experiences of the individual that colour the perceptions of these stimuli present in the society.

Thus, the stimulus may be same for all members of a group. But the reactions may vary as attitude, value, need and past experiences are unique for a particular individual and vary from person to person. Hence the social behaviour is determined by the physical stimuli present in the environment, as well as by need, past experiences, social rules and social codes, traditions and customs, cultural factors etc.

Social psychology is not only a branch of general psychology it is also considered as a basic social science by itself as it is concerned with each and every aspect of a person’s behaviour in the society. Like other scientists social psychologists currently rely heavily on the same basic methods to understand social behaviour.

Thus, the overall approach of social psychology is clearly a scientific one. Like any other science it deals with a general set of methods and techniques that can be used to study diverse topics coming under the scope of social psychology.

Social psychologists have been interested to focus most of their attention and choice upon the actions and thoughts of individuals in social situations. No doubt such behavioural actions almost always occur in a group situation, when group means more than one person with some common interest.

It may occur against a backdrop of socio cultural factors like group ‘membership, culturally shared values, norms and standards.

But the major interest of social psychologists is to understand and acquaint themselves with factors that shape, mould and direct the action of individual human beings in a wide range of social situations. They are also actively interested to know how their action, feeling, thought, attitude and learning are shaped with respect to other individuals.

Social behaviour is formed and developed by varied factors.

Important among them are:

(1) Behaviour and characteristics of other persons,

(2) Social cognition i.e., thought, attitudes and memories about persons around,

(3) Ecological variables like direct and indirect influences of the physical environment, the socio cultural context in which social behaviour occurs and different aspects of the biological nature of man relevant to social behaviour.

Biological factors which refer to inherited aspects of our physical appearance and innate capacity of the person to process social information also affect and influence key aspects of behaviour in many situations.

According to Fieldman (1985) social psychology is a dynamic evolving scientific discipline with substantial relevance to people’s lives. It is an attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined and implied presence of others.

3. Essay on the Field, Scope, Aim and Problems of Social Psychology :

Social psychology is a very vast area and covers wide territory. Especially in the modern age where there is always tension and cold war of some sort study of social psychology is of tremendous importance. Social psychology is a dynamic science evolving a scientific discipline with substantial relevance to the peoples’ life.

It deals with the whole of the individual. Accurate and useful information about human social relations can be readily acquired by the study of social psychology through scientific methods. Even complex aspects of social behaviour can also be undertaken in a scientific manner by social psychologists.

Social psychology comes to help the administrators and politicians in order to advise them as to the methods that should be adopted for the improvement of society and how to live successfully by removing the social tension. It directs as to how the results of physical sciences should be handled for the benefits of the individuals.

As already indicated the scope of social psychology is very wide and growing wider day by day. New techniques are developed every day and new application of old techniques are discovered. Contact with neighbouring disciplines increases constantly. Social psychologists also direct their attention to practical problems which arise at the local, national and international level.

Social psychology focusses mainly on the task of understanding the causes of social behaviour, unidentified factors that shape one’s feeling behaviour and thought in social situation. Social psychology seeks to accomplish this goal through the use of essentially scientific methods. Studies on social interaction have proved quite fruitful in this regard.

Interpretation of general psychology in the light of various social situations, the examination of the manner in which social factors enter into activities which are not usually considered social like motivation, emotional behaviour, social perception and memory etc. have also been included under the scope and field of social psychology.

The situation may be perceived differently by different persons because of the difference in socialization process, need, value and past experience.

Difference in perception produces difference in behaviour. Social psychology also involves the translation of traditional social psychological concepts like imitation, suggestion, prejudice and discrimination etc. in terms of basic psychological concepts like learning and perception, social influence on the individual social interaction between two or more individuals group processes etc.

Even when one is in a lone situation, the way he thinks, feels and acts is affected and influenced by others. The effect of others are particularly more salient when their physical presence is felt in the environment. Manifestation of achievement motivation, formation and development of attitudes, opinions and ideas are also studied under social psychology.

The socialization of the child, culture and personality is another major feature of social psychology.

The manner is which the child becomes a socialized adult under different cultural conditions, how personalities and social behaviour vary with cultural differences are very interesting topics which have attracted the attention of social anthropologists. Interaction between and among individuals have been studied in social psychology, with added importance.

When two or more people are taking, working, discussing, sharing and interacting, planning, or even fighting verbally social psychologists study them with primary interest. Further communication processes, social influences in attitude change, bargaining and negotiating, interpersonal attraction, aggressive and helping behaviour are also important in social psychology.

How attitude can be changed by advertising, how nonverbal behaviour can be used to infer emotions and how friendship, love, relationship can be developed with others, how tensions and cold war can be reduced are the responsibility of social psychologists.

Study of group processes, group dynamics and socio-metry is also of prime importance to social psychologists. Social psychologists on a larger scale study organisations, social institutions like government and legal system and physical environment to find out how people respond to these influences.

Study of individual and group differences relate to the field of differential psychology. It represents continuous interests of the social psychologists in the study of the characteristics ides of temporary national groups and the problems of national character.

Cognitive factors like attitudes and opinions, beliefs, values, influences, communication research, content analysis, propaganda etc. are studied in social psychology as they play a key role in social behaviour.

By knowing the basic cognitive processes social behaviour can be modulated and changed according to need. The growing influence of cognitive perspective has therefore been recognised by social psychologists particularly during the 1970s.

The measurement of attitudes, the use of polling devices and other survey techniques, investigations of the effects of various mass media, the study of attitude change through propaganda and other methods, the study of trends in public opinions towards T.V., cinema, family planning, dowry system, widow marriage, caste system, gender issue, women education are studied in social psychology.

Social interaction, socio-metry and leadership include interrelated group of techniques and problems which are attracting tremendous attention of social psychologists working in the area of group dynamics and national and international relations.

If the group is carefully analysed the process of interaction (action and reaction) starts from the very beginning i.e., from the moment of birth. The neonate is helpless at birth and the biological needs of the new born infant are satisfied by the society.

During this process there is integration between the infant and the members of the society. Even in the lone situations the behaviour of a person is not free from social influences.

The way he feels, thinks, acts and behaves is determined in relation to the social customs, traditions, values and norms even when he is alone. However, one can say that the social influence may be minimum in a lone situation, while it is maximum when one is in a group. Hence the difference of influence is in degree and not in kind.

The structure of the group, its morale and cohesiveness also contribute a determining influence on the individual’s behaviour. The group may be divided into a number of subgroups but these subgroups differ and the difference may have an unhealthy influence upon the group morale.

From this angle the problem of leadership should be given top priority because the leaders reflect the characteristics and functions of the subgroups. The various techniques of propaganda and change of attitudes are made in this direction.

Problems relating to international tension are also included in the scope and field of social psychology. Particularly in the modern era when the distance in the international field is narrowed down, international tension is an interesting area to analyse and understand.

Like any other tension and conflict, the root of international tension is prejudice and discrimination. Hence prejudice, stereotypes and social tension etc. are studied in social psychology with special emphasis.

Of late, there was a shift in interest towards intra individual social processes and away from inter individual processes. Thus work on attribution and social cognition and person perception has been given emphasis.

More recently, everyone is experiencing the influence of social psychology in medical care, law and business etc. some social psychologist have also shifted their interest to study on impression formation. Research on social pathology has also interested the social psychologists.

Pathological aspects of social life has been studied with the development of adequate therapeutic methods. This interest has been directed particularly to the problems of mental abnormality, delinquency and crime and of the forms of inter group hostility reflected in prejudice and discrimination and industrial conflict.

Social motivation is a very important factor. Need for prestige, status recognition, honour are vital aspects of study in social psychology.

Biological, sociological and psychological factors have entered in the realm of social psychology. That is why its field is very vast. Briefly the development of social psychology includes the application of evolutionary and hereditarian principles to society, the emphasis on the psychological characters of groups as distinct from individuals, the theory of social motivation and the reactions against it, the application of experimental methods to the problems of social psychology and the increasing realisation of the part played by society in determining the behaviour of individual.

For the last few decades, social psychology has become increasingly comparative experimental and applied. During this period a large number of studies have been done in the area of social psychology which indicates its tremendous popularity and the interest shown by the psychologists in the area of experimental social psychology. But the progress in the area of experimental social psychology is not upto the mark.

Social psychology has not been encouraged so much due to the following reasons:

(i) A lot of people consider scientific social psychology research to be unnecessary and not worth the expense,

(ii) This is because of their belief that they have been quite successful in political, economic and social field without having a scientific knowledge of social psychology,

(iii) The most important purpose of science is to understand, predict and central, but social psychology as a science has not been able to predict human behaviour in the true sense of the term because unlike physical sciences psychology deals with human beings who are dynamic in nature.

4. Essay on the Relationship of Social Psychology with Other Sciences: 

(i) social psychology and sociology :.

While studying the relationship between sociology and social psychology the absence of any sharp dividing line is noticed.

Sociology deals with the society, groups and institutions, how the society and groups function, its various manners and behaviour etc. The group and society as a whole, its structure and functions is also studied in sociology.

Adequate knowledge of the structure of the society, its customs and manners etc. would help one to understand the behaviour of the individual in the society as society influences the behaviour of the individual. On the other hand social psychology studies the individual behaviour in relation to the group or society.

According to Kupuswamy sociology is the science which studies the development and principles of social organisation and generally group behaviour as distinct from the behaviour of the individuals in the group. Basically the group is its unit of study.

It studies the structure and organisation of groups. More analytically speaking, sociology is interested in the origin and development of groups, the factors leading to the continuance of a group, how a group or society imposes its own discipline on its members and demands their compliance. How and why of change of groups and social institutions are also investigated by sociologists.

On the contrary, the field and scope of social psychology is very limited. It is only concerned with the individuals, how an individual interacts with other individuals in the group/social. Society psychology studies the psychological factors involved in the formation and development of a group. This psychological factor is also of basic necessity for the formation, development and change of social institutions.

According to MacIver and Page “Both Sciences are concerned with different aspects of an indivisible reality.” Individuals cannot be understood apart from their relations with one another, the relations cannot be understood apart from their units (or terms) of the relationship.

Nevertheless a group is made up of individuals and overlapping in the scope and subject matter of sociology and social psychology is inevitable.

For example, while considering the problems of gang and gang behaviour the sociologist would be concerned with the social and economic causes of gang life, the relation of the gang to law and order, and institutions like the school and the church and the geographical distribution of gangs, their effect on the life of the community etc.

On the other hand, the social psychologist might be expected to study the nature of the individual in the gang, their intellectual and personal characteristics, the effect of the gang on the individuals constituting it, the life history of the individual members, etc.

When, however, a sociologist attempts to write a book or an article on GANG he would certainly not make any such artificial distinction and interestingly many of his findings would relate properly to the field of social psychology.

(ii) Social Psychology and Anthropology :

Anthropology is defined as the science of man, study of individuals and their cultures. Anthropology involves the biological and socio cultural aspects. It takes even a larger approach to social phenomena than sociology by focusing its attention on the universal or total population of a particular culture such as family structure. It places very little importance or emphasis on the individual.

The science of anthropology particularly ethnology bears a similar relation to social psychology. Wissler regards social psychology as concerned with individual performance in group and anthropology with group- behaviour.

The anthropologist is least interested in the function of the individual in the group. But there are occasions where the individual becomes of utmost importance to the anthropologist. Literatures and facts dealing with the life histories of members of many different cultural groups bear ample testimony to the growing interest of anthropologists in the individual and culture.

A human being not only transmits his beliefs, customs and values of social institutions to his children and descendants, he also transfers his skills to them. This is called culture. “Culture stands for the sum total of human behaviour, verbal and nonverbal and its products, material and non material.” Anthropology is interested in studying how culture influences the behaviour of an individual.

Culture has two aspects such as material and non-material. Material aspects refer to the modes of culture or modes of living, house building, tools and the objects which give a particular technique of living to different people. Non-material aspects refer to the customs, traditions, manners, taboos etc. prevalent in the society and this varies from culture to culture. A cultural anthropologist deals with such things.

Margaret Mead in “From the South Seas Patterns”. Ruth Benedict in “Patterns of Culture”, Kardinar in “The Individual and the Society”, and in “Psychological Fronters of Society” have analysed different cultures and their effects on individual’s personality and living standard.

The social psychologist studies the behaviour of the individual in a group and these people of a group come form different cultures. Whether different people of the same group come from same culture or different cultures will determine the behaviour of the individual.

Difference in behaviour is marked because of difference in cultural conditions. The behaviour of people coming from homogeneous culture ought to be different from the activities and behaviour of persons coming from heterogeneous culture and there may be conflict among the people coming from heterogeneous culture ‘ because of the difference in cultural conditions.

According to Majumdar and Madan socio-cultural anthropology studies four types of human activities:

(i) Activities leading to the satisfaction of biological and psychological needs;

(ii) Activities reading to social organisation like family, marriage, clubs and other social institutions for satisfaction to biological and psychological social motives through group behaviour;

(iii) Activities and attitudes towards the unseen presence of supernatural powers; and

(iv) Activities required for the expression of aesthetic activities of a group. No human behaviour or nature is purely biological. Different biological traits of behaviour are coloured and conditioned by the cultural training and upbringing. Approval of a particular trait demands upon the norms of the group.

While aggressiveness and competitiveness is approved in New Guinea, it is disapproved in Zuni Red Indians of New Mexico. While the ideal qualities of Mudugammers are violence and aggressiveness, in Arapest tribe the ideal and accepted qualities are mildness and responsiveness.

In the Tchembuli tribe, the woman is dominant, responsible and impersonal while the man is less responsible and emotionally dependent person says Margret Mead.

Similarly in Indian tribal groups technique of up-bring and socio cultural values influence personality traits and socialization process. The chief aim of an anthropologist is to study the patterns of culture in different parts of the universe particularly the illiterate tribal and rural groups of the world, their customs, traditions, mores, values and norms.

Culture is considered as a very important force which studies the values and mores of a person and how they determine, control and regulate the behaviour of the individual.

Though by and large a particular culture of a society determine, regulate and control individual behaviour and though the majority of the individual in any particular group are found to be of conforming type, it cannot be forgotten that some individuals bring change in the existing culture by their revolutionary and novel ideas.

While a cultural anthropologist studies the pattern of culture, social psychologist studies the way in which a particular individual of a particular group acquires the culture.

According to Kupuswamy while anthropology makes use of culture and customs as concepts to understand patterns of social organisation, it is the task of social psychology to analyse the processes underlying these concepts. An anthropologist also attempts to determine how customs are found and transmitted from generation to generation.

Data collected by both anthropologists and social psychologist is of tremendous value in classifying many psychological problems. Psychologists have become more and more culture conscious and they are found using the data of anthropologists.

Gradually they are familiarizing themselves more and more with anthropological research and are insisting on its growing need to separate the accidental from the universal in human nature.

In some cases psychologists and psychoanalysts have applied their theories and techniques to the understanding of ethnological phenomena. Similarly in other cases, ethnologists have borrowed from psychology those modes of interpretation which they have found most useful.

It is observed that application of psychological techniques to the comparative study of culture is increasing day by day. Psychologists and anthropologists have cooperated in this development in some instances combining their techniques and points of view in carrying joint research undertakings.

Although overlapping is observed among social psychology, sociology and anthropology, the major focus of interest and the approach to problems differ among these fields. The major focus of social psychologist has been individual psychological process and their social integration with others while sociologists and anthropologists focus on the larger groups to which people belong.

According to Linton “The individual has been assigned to psychology, society to sociology and culture to cultural anthropology. The integration between individual, society and culture is so close and their interaction is so continuous that the investigator who tries to work with any of these disciplines without reference to the other two soon comes to a dead end.”

Social psychology is also related to social sciences like economics and politics in some way or other. The individual may have some effimination to certain political parties, it may have some view about a particular economic problem. Therefore particular problems which are related to the individual in the society are also related to social psychology.

5. Essay on the Method of Applying Social Psychology :

Though of late a lot of work has been done on experimental social psychology, social psychology nevertheless begins and ends in the laboratory. Basic research in social psychology naturally leads to application. Almost as soon as the field was established, social psychologists were found rightly showing interest in the application aspect.

Many social psychologist devote their primary professional efforts to solving societal problems. Social psychology is very helpful in providing data relevant to issues as diverse as the improvement of day care for children and evaluation of affirmative action policies.

It is thus seen that the job of the social psychologist is besides establishing principles of social behaviour to apply these principles and theories in social situations for understanding a specific behaviour.

An applied social psychologist not only analyses but also diagnoses and advises on various social problems. When social psychology is shifted from academics and carried to occupations and applied setting, increasing emphasis on applied activity is visualized.

Many of the modern social psychologists are currently working in hospitals, government offices, business organisations and other semi-academic and non- academic institutions to assess, control and predict human behaviour under different settings and solve social problems.

In view of the period bias attached to social psychology today Rodin (1985) has defined social psychology as the utilisation of social psychological principles and research methods in real world settings in the attempt to solve social problem.

(i) Role of social psychology in legal system,

(ii) Health psychology,

(iii) Psychology in work setting i.e. organisational behaviour,

(iv) Consumer behaviour.

(i) Role of Social Psychology in Legal System:

In a society, there is enough scope for interaction and when people interact their behaviour and judgement etc. are affected by various factors like attitudes, emotions, beliefs and cognitions. In the court room or in the legal system these attitudes and beliefs affect the participants like the judges and jury, pleaders, attorney, dependants and witnesses in a major way.

Huge Munsterberg started investing the accuracy in the statements of eye witnesses at the turn of the century.

On the basis of his observations, pointed out that people have by and large a tendency to reconstruct events in ways that do not match what actually occurred. He opined that emotions strongly affect the memories of witnesses as a result of which accounts of what occurred or happened were very often greatly distorted or transformed by fear, anxiety and anger etc.

Recently there was an effort to increase the accuracy of the testimonies of eye witnesses.

Munsterberg devises a physiological instrument to detect lying and also investigated the application of the technique of hypnosis as means to bring accuracy in the testimony of the witnesses. Both lie detection and hypnosis are the centre of current research efforts in this field.

Munsterberg further believed that not only witnesses but also judges and juries were subject to the effects of suggestibility and persuasion. Thus applied research on the legal system provides convincing evidence that psychological factors influence witnesses, jurors and defendants, attorneys and judges according to Baren and Byrne (1988).

(ii) Health Psychology:

It refers to the social psychological aspects of health care. Gundola (1985) views that some personality variables predispose a person having certain illnesses. Increase in physical fitness leads to an improvement in psychological characteristics such as creativity. Thus according to Rogers (1983) health psychology studies the psychological processes that affect the prevention and treatment of physical illness.

Prevention being always better than cure, preventing illness is always desirable than treating illness. Kirscht (1983) holds that any health programme must deal with individual differences in the willingness to follow medical advice. Analysis of the problem led to the development of health belief model. It means that an individual’s beliefs about health and threat of illness are used to predict his health related behaviour.

Weinstein (1904) noted that college students hold unrealistically optimistic beliefs about their health risks. These findings may lead one to hold lack of knowledge on the part of the students which is not actually correct. Rudy and Salovey (1984) further say that the problem lies not in having the information but in applying it to oneself.

(iii) Work Setting:

This refers to organisational behaviour. It seeks to know, understand and predict human behaviour in original work situation or environment through scientific study of individuals and groups as well as the structure and function of such organisations.

By the following factors one can achieve job satisfaction and assess its effects on production as well as on the employees:

(a) Selection of the right employee can ensure full job satisfaction and productivity. The employee and the job must fit with each other.

(b) To make jobs more interesting and stimulating variety, novelty and change can be introduced to routined task.

(c) Flexible time schedules i.e. freedom in deciding when to work leads to decrease in absenteeism and hence more and better performance.

(d) Organisational commitment on the part of the employees should be ensured.

(e) Meetings of employees should be called voluntarily once in a week to discuss problems on the job and to suggest solutions also may improve the quality and quantity of productions and overall psychological condition of the employees.

According to Marks (1986), Koch (1982) the relationship between job satisfaction and one’s personal life is fairly direct. Those who are happily married like their jobs better than do those who are single. Thus it seems reasonable to expect that satisfaction or dissatisfaction involving either one’s work or one’s home life would obviously have an effect on the other.

(iv) Consumer Behaviour:

The behaviour of the individual in advertising, product information packaging, brand names and all other factors involved in marketing products and services come under applied social psychology. Consumer psychology is that field which deals with the factors affecting consumer behaviour.

All these discussions lead one to conclude that application of social psychology to organisational and consumer behaviour is of crucial importance in every aspect of one’s life. It would really be difficult to conceive any human behaviour where the findings of social psychology would be inapplicable and irrelevant.

The science of social psychology as an applied science contributes a lot in dealing with the problems of national and international tension, communal and social prejudice, discrimination and conflicts relating to socio-economic status in uncovering the relevant causes of these problems in specific situations.

The concrete details of various problems of social psychology are to be known for applying social psychology to the concrete situation. For all these work, careful research on applied social psychology is essential.

The various problems of social psychology change from time to time and from culture to culture and even to some extent in the same culture depending upon the parental and neighbourhood social values built up for long years. How particular intercultural and interpersonal problems influence various social problems are also studied by applied social psychologists.

However, it is reasonable to hold that the findings of social psychological research with certain exceptions can be widely generalizable and potentially useful to all human beings of the society provided they have an applied bias. Only formulating theories and principles on social psychology is not enough.

6. Essay on the Status of Social Psychology in India:

Scientific studies, researches and investigations elevate the status and scope of a subject. In view of this, social psychology holds a lower status in India compared to its western counterparts. Psychological researches in India started around the first part of the twentieth century when Calcutta University started its first psychological laboratory in 1915.

During these eighty years though certain research works have been carried out by Indian social psychologists they are not enough to give even a moderate status to social psychology. Even if some have shown initial interest in the research work on social psychology, no continuity has been maintained. In most of the cases the works have been left half way, incomplete, unfinished due to various reasons.

However, it cannot be denied that in the post independent period there has been a great rise in the research work on social psychology. While between 1950-1960 the total number of research papers published in India in the area of social psychology come to 96,306 papers were published during the period 1960-1970. Besides these published works, many unpublished research works have also been conducted.

The Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) has undoubtedly helped immensely in accelerating the interest of Indian psychologists to conduct research in the area of social psychology by providing funds and sponsoring schemes.

Research studies have been conducted in the area of attitude, stereotype, culture and personality pattern, family structure and socialization process, effect of socio­economic structure on aspiration and achievements, marriage, cross cultural comparisons, social tension, caste, sex and religious prejudices among children and adults of various religious and socio­economic groups, social change and factors influencing the resistance to social change, psycho linguistics, public opinion and communication process, cognitive consonance, rumour, social life of tribals.

Several scales have also been constructed for use in social psychology research. Attempts have been made to develop innovative methods etc. Studies on inter-group and inter-caste tensions have also been carried out by some.

India being a country where people of innumerable castes, languages and religions reside, there is enough scope for varied studies in social psychology, particularly on inter-caste, inter-religion and different linguistic groups. But unfortunately the researches conducted are not quite encouraging and meaningful as they have not been of much help in reducing the social problems and social burden of Indian democracy.

Of course, several huddles and difficulties have obstructed the speedy growth of research in social psychology and India. Illiteracy, poor socio-economic condition of people of the disadvantaged class, lack of initiative on the part of the common people to cooperate heartily with research are some of the important obstacles.

Thus, by and large, the psychological climate is not favourable for such research. People look towards the researchers with suspicion who go to collect data with suspicion because of lack of proper education. Enough research facilities are not available in many colleges and universities of the country.

Want of funds and sponsoring authorities for conduction of research are some basic handicaps also. India being a developing country, education for all has still become a dream than a reality. Though we are approaching 21st century primary education is not provided to all school going children due to financial and other constraints.

When people are not able to fulfil their minimum needs, provision for funds for research has not been and cannot be given top priority.

Inspite of the above handicaps, the Indian social psychologists have taken tremendous trouble to improve the standard of research during the last several decades. In the mean time, attempts have been made to conduct highly sophisticated research in the area of social psychology.

The basic deficiency in the research of Indian social psychologists appears to lie in its lack of applicability. Unless social psychologist researches indicate the utility and applicability of their findings no one can afford and encourage the luxury of researches without any application and utility. Thus the approach and orientation towards social psychology, researches should be shifted from theory to practice.

The above review of the status of social psychology in India makes it amply clear that though social psychology was neglected branch of psychology in India before 1960, after 1960 it got the special attention of the Indian social psychologists. With the establishment of the various university centres and institutes in India, research in social psychology has been speeded up after 1960. 

The Indian Council of Social Science Research New Delhi, The A.N.S. Institute of Social Studies, Patna, The Institute of Psychological Researches, Patna University, The Centre for Social Assistance in Psychology Allahabad, University, Centre for Advanced Studies in Psychology, Utkal University, The N.K.C. Institute of Special Sciences Bhubaneswar, Orissa, the P.G. Deptts. of various universities of the country have stimulated a number of valuable and original research in social psychology.

Leading Indian social psychologists like Durganand Sinha, R. Rath, H.C. Ganguly, A.K. Singh, Adinarayan, Anant, Aslhan, J.C. Dasgupta, Kupuswamy, V. Jhosi, Bhusan Bhattacharya, V.K. Kolhurkar, C.K. Bose, A.K.P. Sinha, Majumdar, G.B. Mohanty, S.C. Panchbhai, V. Pareekh and many others have enriched the field of social psychology in India inspite of lack of research facilities.

These psychologists should be credited for their constant and continuous research interest in various areas of social psychology mostly due to their own initiative.

Currently many brilliant and young social psychologists posted at various universities and Institutes of the country have shown active interest in social psychology research. Many of them are also engaged in the research on applied and experimental social psychology.

But unfortunately journals in social psychology are not adequate to publish their research findings. Unless the research findings get adequate scope for publication, it would not be possible for other psychologists working in the same area to benefit from each other. Further large number of conferences should be conducted every year for discussion, analysis and review etc.

If the difficulties and bottle-necks discussed above can be removed to some extent the status of social psychology can be elevated to be comparable with its western counterparts with systematic and concerted efforts.

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50+ Research Topics for Psychology Papers

How to Find Psychology Research Topics for Your Student Paper

• Specific Branches of Psychology
• Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy
• Human Cognition
• Human Development
• Critique of Publications
• Famous Experiments
• Historical Figures
• Specific Careers
• Case Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Your Own Study/Experiment

Are you searching for a great topic for your psychology paper ? Sometimes it seems like coming up with topics of psychology research is more challenging than the actual research and writing. Fortunately, there are plenty of great places to find inspiration and the following list contains just a few ideas to help get you started.

Finding a solid topic is one of the most important steps when writing any type of paper. It can be particularly important when you are writing a psychology research paper or essay. Psychology is such a broad topic, so you want to find a topic that allows you to adequately cover the subject without becoming overwhelmed with information.

I can always tell when a student really cares about the topic they chose; it comes through in the writing. My advice is to choose a topic that genuinely interests you, so you’ll be more motivated to do thorough research.

In some cases, such as in a general psychology class, you might have the option to select any topic from within psychology's broad reach. Other instances, such as in an  abnormal psychology  course, might require you to write your paper on a specific subject such as a psychological disorder.

As you begin your search for a topic for your psychology paper, it is first important to consider the guidelines established by your instructor.

Research Topics Within Specific Branches of Psychology

The key to selecting a good topic for your psychology paper is to select something that is narrow enough to allow you to really focus on the subject, but not so narrow that it is difficult to find sources or information to write about.

One approach is to narrow your focus down to a subject within a specific branch of psychology. For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write a paper on some sort of social psychology topic. Next, you might narrow your focus down to how persuasion can be used to influence behavior .

Other social psychology topics you might consider include:

• Prejudice and discrimination (i.e., homophobia, sexism, racism)
• Social cognition
• Person perception
• Social control and cults
• Persuasion, propaganda, and marketing
• Attraction, romance, and love
• Nonverbal communication
• Prosocial behavior

Psychology Research Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy

Exploring a psychological disorder or a specific treatment modality can also be a good topic for a psychology paper. Some potential abnormal psychology topics include specific psychological disorders or particular treatment modalities, including:

• Eating disorders
• Borderline personality disorder
• Seasonal affective disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Profile a  type of therapy  (i.e., cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, psychoanalytic therapy)

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Cognition

Some of the possible topics you might explore in this area include thinking, language, intelligence, and decision-making. Other ideas might include:

• False memories
• Speech disorders
• Problem-solving

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Development

In this area, you might opt to focus on issues pertinent to  early childhood  such as language development, social learning, or childhood attachment or you might instead opt to concentrate on issues that affect older adults such as dementia or Alzheimer's disease.

Some other topics you might consider include:

• Language acquisition
• Media violence and children
• Learning disabilities
• Gender roles
• Child abuse
• Prenatal development
• Parenting styles
• Aspects of the aging process

Do a Critique of Publications Involving Psychology Research Topics

One option is to consider writing a critique paper of a published psychology book or academic journal article. For example, you might write a critical analysis of Sigmund Freud's Interpretation of Dreams or you might evaluate a more recent book such as Philip Zimbardo's  The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil .

Professional and academic journals are also great places to find materials for a critique paper. Browse through the collection at your university library to find titles devoted to the subject that you are most interested in, then look through recent articles until you find one that grabs your attention.

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Famous Experiments

There have been many fascinating and groundbreaking experiments throughout the history of psychology, providing ample material for students looking for an interesting term paper topic. In your paper, you might choose to summarize the experiment, analyze the ethics of the research, or evaluate the implications of the study. Possible experiments that you might consider include:

• The Milgram Obedience Experiment
• The Stanford Prison Experiment
• The Little Albert Experiment
• Pavlov's Conditioning Experiments
• The Asch Conformity Experiment
• Harlow's Rhesus Monkey Experiments

Topics of Psychology Research About Historical Figures

One of the simplest ways to find a great topic is to choose an interesting person in the  history of psychology  and write a paper about them. Your paper might focus on many different elements of the individual's life, such as their biography, professional history, theories, or influence on psychology.

While this type of paper may be historical in nature, there is no need for this assignment to be dry or boring. Psychology is full of fascinating figures rife with intriguing stories and anecdotes. Consider such famous individuals as Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Harry Harlow, or one of the many other  eminent psychologists .

Psychology Research Topics About a Specific Career

​Another possible topic, depending on the course in which you are enrolled, is to write about specific career paths within the  field of psychology . This type of paper is especially appropriate if you are exploring different subtopics or considering which area interests you the most.

In your paper, you might opt to explore the typical duties of a psychologist, how much people working in these fields typically earn, and the different employment options that are available.

Topics of Psychology Research Involving Case Studies

One potentially interesting idea is to write a  psychology case study  of a particular individual or group of people. In this type of paper, you will provide an in-depth analysis of your subject, including a thorough biography.

Generally, you will also assess the person, often using a major psychological theory such as  Piaget's stages of cognitive development  or  Erikson's eight-stage theory of human development . It is also important to note that your paper doesn't necessarily have to be about someone you know personally.

In fact, many professors encourage students to write case studies on historical figures or fictional characters from books, television programs, or films.

Psychology Research Topics Involving Literature Reviews

Another possibility that would work well for a number of psychology courses is to do a literature review of a specific topic within psychology. A literature review involves finding a variety of sources on a particular subject, then summarizing and reporting on what these sources have to say about the topic.

Literature reviews are generally found in the  introduction  of journal articles and other  psychology papers , but this type of analysis also works well for a full-scale psychology term paper.

Topics of Psychology Research Based on Your Own Study or Experiment

Many psychology courses require students to design an actual psychological study or perform some type of experiment. In some cases, students simply devise the study and then imagine the possible results that might occur. In other situations, you may actually have the opportunity to collect data, analyze your findings, and write up your results.

Finding a topic for your study can be difficult, but there are plenty of great ways to come up with intriguing ideas. Start by considering your own interests as well as subjects you have studied in the past.

Online sources, newspaper articles, books , journal articles, and even your own class textbook are all great places to start searching for topics for your experiments and psychology term papers. Before you begin, learn more about  how to conduct a psychology experiment .

What This Means For You

After looking at this brief list of possible topics for psychology papers, it is easy to see that psychology is a very broad and diverse subject. While this variety makes it possible to find a topic that really catches your interest, it can sometimes make it very difficult for some students to select a good topic.

If you are still stumped by your assignment, ask your instructor for suggestions and consider a few from this list for inspiration.

• Hockenbury, SE & Nolan, SA. Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers; 2014.
• Santrock, JW. A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2016.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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How to Write a Sociology Essay: Structure and a Sample

Writing a good sociology essay may seem overwhelming, but it can be manageable with a clear approach. By following a few straightforward steps, you can craft an insightful and well-structured essay. Here's how to get started:

• Choose a topic.
• Conduct thorough research.
• Develop a strong thesis statement.
• Create a detailed outline.
• Write the essay.
• Edit and proofread thoroughly.

In this guide, we'll break down each step on how to write a sociology paper. From selecting a topic to polishing your conclusion, you'll find practical advice to make your work stand out.

If you need more help after reading this guide, remember that DoMyEssay offers professional assistance for any type of essay. Our team can support you with everything from brainstorming to final proofreading!

What is Sociology Essay?

A sociology essay is a piece of academic writing that explores a specific social issue or phenomenon from a sociological perspective. These essays require a deep understanding of complex social issues and the ability to critically evaluate different viewpoints. They must be supported by empirical data, such as statistics, case studies, or scholarly articles.

When writing a sociology essay, you'll often draw on theoretical concepts and frameworks to explain social phenomena. Therefore, your paper should be well-organized and easy to follow, with a clear introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion.

In essence, a sociology essay is more than just a collection of facts. It involves meaningful analysis and contributes to our understanding of the social world.

Sociology Essay Structure

To achieve a well-structured sociology essay, consider the following structural elements:

Sociology Essay Introduction: Begin your essay with a powerful hook that immediately grabs the reader's attention. This could be a thought-provoking question, a surprising statistic, a vivid anecdote, or a striking quote.

The Background: Provide the necessary context and background information to orient your reader. Explain the significance of your topic and its relevance within the broader field of sociology.

The Thesis Statement: Your thesis statement is the backbone of your essay. When crafting a sociology essay, ensure your thesis is debatable and offers a unique perspective on the topic.

The Body: Each body paragraph should focus on a single main idea or argument. Use the PEEL structure (Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link) to organize your thoughts and effectively support your claims.

• Point: Clearly state the main point of the paragraph.
• Evidence: Support your point with relevant evidence, such as research findings, statistics, case studies, or expert opinions.
• Explanation: Analyze and interpret the evidence to demonstrate how it supports your point.
• Link: Connect the paragraph's main point to your overall thesis statement.

The Conclusion: Your conclusion should effectively summarize your main points and restate your thesis in a new and compelling way. Offer your final thoughts or insights on the topic and leave the reader with something to ponder.

Sociology Essay Format

Proper formatting is essential for a professional-looking and well-organized sociology essay. While specific guidelines may vary depending on your institution or instructor, here are some general essay format conventions to follow:

Font and Font Size

Use a standard, readable font like Times New Roman, Arial, or Calibri. Maintain a consistent font size throughout your essay, typically 12 points.

Sociology Essay Outline

A well-structured outline is the foundation of a successful sociology essay. It guides you through the writing process and ensures that your ideas are organized logically and coherently. Here's a dynamic approach on how to write a sociology paper outline:

Introduction

• Start with a paradox: Present a seemingly contradictory statement that sparks curiosity.
• Use a thought experiment: Propose a hypothetical scenario that illustrates your point.
• Ask a rhetorical question: Pose a question that doesn't require an answer but stimulates thought.

Body Paragraphs

• Compare and contrast: Draw unexpected parallels between seemingly unrelated concepts.
• Use historical examples: Connect your topic to historical events or figures.
• Examine counterarguments: Address potential objections to your argument.
• Propose a solution: Suggest a practical solution to the issue you've discussed.
• Raise a new question: Leave the reader pondering a thought-provoking question.
• Offer a personal reflection: Share a personal anecdote or experience that relates to your topic.

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How to Start a Sociology Essay?

The introduction of your sociology essay is your first opportunity to engage your reader. To make a lasting impression, consider these 4 approaches:

• Paint a Vivid Picture: Use vivid language to create a mental image for your reader. For example, instead of saying, "The city was crowded," you could say, "The city was a bustling metropolis, teeming with people from all walks of life." Engage your reader's senses by describing sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and touch.
• Pose a Thought-Provoking Question: Ensure your question is directly related to your essay's topic. Choose a question that prompts your reader to think critically and consider different perspectives.
• Begin with a Paradox or Contradiction: Present a seemingly contradictory statement that sparks curiosity. Explain how you will address the contradiction in your essay.
• Create a Hypothetical Scenario: Ensure your scenario is directly related to your essay's topic. Use vivid language to help your reader visualize the scenario.

How to Write a Sociology Essay?

Knowing how to write sociology essays requires more than just regurgitating facts and theories. To do so, let's consider these tips:

• Compare and contrast: Draw surprising parallels between seemingly unrelated concepts. For example, you could compare the rise of social media to the decline of traditional media outlets or analyze the similarities between the spread of infectious diseases and the diffusion of cultural trends.
• Use historical examples: Connect your sociology essay topic to historical events or figures to provide a broader context. For instance, you could examine the relationship between the Industrial Revolution and the rise of urbanization or explore how the civil rights movement influenced contemporary social justice movements.
• Question conventional wisdom: Challenge commonly held beliefs or assumptions about your topic. For example, instead of assuming that all people in a particular social group have the same experiences or opinions, explore the diversity within that group.
• Consider alternative perspectives: Explore viewpoints that may contradict your own. For instance, if you are writing about the benefits of globalization, consider the negative impacts it has had on certain communities or countries.
• Incorporate storytelling: Use narratives or anecdotes to illustrate your points and engage your reader. For example, you could tell a personal story about your experiences with discrimination to highlight the challenges faced by marginalized groups.
• Experiment with different styles: Try different writing styles, such as descriptive, persuasive, or analytical. For instance, you could use a persuasive style to argue for a particular policy change or a descriptive style to paint a vivid picture of a social phenomenon.
• Find a niche: Identify a specific aspect of your topic that has not been extensively explored. For example, instead of writing a general essay on poverty, you could focus on the experiences of homeless youth in a particular city.
• Offer a new interpretation: Provide a fresh perspective on a well-studied topic. For instance, you could argue that the rise of social media has actually led to increased social polarization rather than greater social connectedness.

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Sociology Essay Example

This essay looks at how society's views on men and women shape these choices and how shopping can reinforce those ideas. Reviewing it will also help you understand the proper structure of a sociology essay.

Here's how to nail your sociology essay:

• Pick a topic that genuinely interests you and ties into sociology.
• Research thoroughly to gather solid information and back up your arguments.
• Craft a clear thesis statement that sums up your main point.
• Create an outline to keep your thoughts organized.
• Write your essay with a logical flow, using evidence to support your arguments.
• Edit and proofread to make sure your essay is clear, concise, and free of errors.

If you're finding it tough to get started, DoMyEssay can lend a hand. Our professional sociology essay writing service is ready to help with everything from brainstorming ideas to polishing your final draft.

How Do You Start a Sociology Essay?

How to write a good sociology essay, what is the format of a sociology paper.