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Action Research: What it is, Types, Stages & Examples

The best way to get things accomplished is to do it yourself. This statement is utilized in corporations, community projects, and national governments. These organizations are relying on action research to cope with their continuously changing and unstable environments as they function in a more interdependent world.

By engaging in cycles of planning, observation, action, and reflection, action research enables participants to identify challenges, implement solutions, and evaluate outcomes. This approach generates practical knowledge and empowers individuals and organizations to effect meaningful change in their contexts.

In practical educational contexts, this involves using systematic inquiry and reflective practice to address real-world challenges, improve teaching and learning, enhance student engagement, and drive positive changes within the educational system .

What is Action Research?

Action research is a strategy that tries to find realistic solutions to organizations’ difficulties and issues. It is similar to applied research.

Action research refers basically learning by doing. First, a problem is identified, then some actions are taken to address it, then how well the efforts worked are measured, and if the results are not satisfactory, the steps are applied again.

It can be put into three different groups:

• Positivist: This type of research is also called “classical action research.” It considers research a social experiment. This research is used to test theories in the actual world.
• Interpretive: This kind of research is called “contemporary action research.” It thinks that business reality is socially made, and when doing this research , it focuses on the details of local and organizational factors.
• Critical: This action research cycle takes a critical reflection approach to corporate systems and tries to enhance them.

Important Types of Action Research

Here are the main types of action research:

1. Practical Action Research

It focuses on solving specific problems within a local context, often involving teachers or practitioners seeking to improve practices.

2. Participatory Action Research (PAR)

A research process in which people, staff, and activists work together to generate knowledge from a study on an issue that adds value and supports their actions for social change.

3. Critical Action Research

Built to address power and social injustices in light of the Hegemonic Underpinnings, this research facilitates a callback, self-reflection, and thorough societal reformations.

4. Collaborative Action Research

In this form of research, a team of practitioners joins to do project work as part of an overall effort to improve. The work continues into the analysis phase with these same folks across all stages.

5. Reflective Action Research

This kind of research emphasizes individual or group reflection on practices. The key to this model is that it encourages reflective and deliberate practice, thus promoting learning and unfolding within ongoing experiences.

6. Transformative Action Research

This model empowers participants to address issues within their communities related to social justice and transformation.

Each type serves different contexts and goals, contributing to the overall effectiveness of action research.

Stages of Action Research

All research is about learning new things. Collaborative action research contributes knowledge based on investigations in particular and frequently useful circumstances. It starts with identifying a problem. After that, the research process is followed by the below stages:

Stage 1: Plan

For an action research project to go well, the researcher needs to plan it well. After coming up with an educational research topic or question after a research study, the first step is to develop an action plan to guide the research process. The research design aims to address the study’s question. The research strategy outlines what to undertake, when, and how.

Stage 2: Act

The next step is implementing the plan and gathering data. At this point, the researcher must select how to collect and organize research data . The researcher also needs to examine all tools and equipment before collecting data to ensure they are relevant, valid, and comprehensive.

Stage 3: Observe

Data observation is vital to any investigation. The action researcher needs to review the project’s goals and expectations before data observation . This is the final step before drawing conclusions and taking action.

Different kinds of graphs, charts, and networks can be used to represent the data. It assists in making judgments or progressing to the next stage of observing.

Stage 4: Reflect

This step involves applying a prospective solution and observing the results. It’s essential to see if the possible solution found through research can really solve the problem being studied.

The researcher must explore alternative ideas when the action research project’s solutions fail to solve the problem.

The Steps of Conducting Action Research

Action research is a systematic approach researchers, educators, and practitioners use to identify and address problems or challenges within a specific context. It involves a cyclical process of planning, implementing, reflecting, and adjusting actions based on the data collected. Here are the general steps involved in conducting an action research process:

Identify the action research question or problem

1. Identify The Action Research Question or Problem

Clearly define the issue or problem you want to address through your research. It should be specific, actionable, and relevant to your working context.

2. Review Existing Knowledge

Conduct a literature review to understand what research has already been done on the topic. This will help you gain insights, identify gaps, and inform your research design .

3. Plan The Research

Develop a research plan outlining your study’s objectives, methods, data collection tools , and timeline. Determine the scope of your research and the participants or stakeholders involved.

4. Collect Data

Implement your research plan by collecting relevant data. This can involve various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, document analysis, or focus groups . Ensure that your data collection methods align with your research objectives and allow you to gather the necessary information.

5. Analyze The Data

Once you have collected the data, analyze it using appropriate qualitative or quantitative techniques. Look for patterns, themes, or trends in the data that can help you understand the problem better.

6. Reflect on The Findings

Reflect on the analyzed data and interpret the results in the context of your research question. Consider the implications and possible solutions that emerge from the data analysis. This reflection phase is crucial for generating insights and understanding the underlying factors contributing to the problem.

7. Develop an Action Plan

Based on your analysis and reflection, develop an action plan that outlines the steps you will take to address the identified problem. The plan should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART goals). Consider involving relevant stakeholders in planning to ensure their buy-in and support.

8. Implement The Action Plan

Put your action plan into practice by implementing the identified strategies or interventions. This may involve making changes to existing practices, introducing new approaches, or testing alternative solutions. Document the implementation process and any modifications made along the way.

9. Evaluate and Monitor Progress

Continuously monitor and evaluate the impact of your actions. Collect additional data, assess the effectiveness of the interventions, and measure progress towards your goals. This evaluation will help you determine if your actions have the desired effects and inform any necessary adjustments.

10. Reflect and Iterate

Reflect on the outcomes of your actions and the evaluation results. Consider what worked well, what did not, and why. Use this information to refine your approach, make necessary adjustments, and plan for the next cycle of action research if needed.

Remember that participatory action research is an iterative process, and multiple cycles may be required to achieve significant improvements or solutions to the identified problem. Each cycle builds on the insights gained from the previous one, fostering continuous learning and improvement.

Explore Insightfully Contextual Inquiry in Qualitative Research

Examples of Action Research

Here are two real-life examples of action research.

Action research initiatives are frequently situation-specific. Still, other researchers can adapt the techniques. The example is from a researcher’s (Franklin, 1994) report about a project encouraging nature tourism in the Caribbean.

In 1991, this was launched to study how nature tourism may be implemented on the four Windward Islands in the Caribbean: St. Lucia, Grenada, Dominica, and St. Vincent.

For environmental protection, a government-led action study determined that the consultation process needs to involve numerous stakeholders, including commercial enterprises.

First, two researchers undertook the study and held search conferences on each island. The search conferences resulted in suggestions and action plans for local community nature tourism sub-projects.

Several islands formed advisory groups and launched national awareness and community projects. Regional project meetings were held to discuss experiences, self-evaluations, and strategies. Creating a documentary about a local initiative helped build community. And the study was a success, leading to a number of changes in the area.

Lau and Hayward (1997) employed action research to analyze Internet-based collaborative work groups.

Over two years, the researchers facilitated three action research problem -solving cycles with 15 teachers, project personnel, and 25 health practitioners from diverse areas. The goal was to see how Internet-based communications might affect their virtual workgroup.

First, expectations were defined, technology was provided, and a bespoke workgroup system was developed. Participants suggested shorter, more dispersed training sessions with project-specific instructions.

The second phase saw the system’s complete deployment. The final cycle witnessed system stability and virtual group formation. The key lesson was that the learning curve was poorly misjudged, with frustrations only marginally met by phone-based technical help. According to the researchers, the absence of high-quality online material about community healthcare was harmful.

Role clarity, connection building, knowledge sharing, resource assistance, and experiential learning are vital for virtual group growth. More study is required on how group support systems might assist groups in engaging with their external environment and boost group members’ learning. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Action Research

Action research has both good and bad points.

• It is very flexible, so researchers can change their analyses to fit their needs and make individual changes.
• It offers a quick and easy way to solve problems that have been going on for a long time instead of complicated, long-term solutions based on complex facts.
• If It is done right, it can be very powerful because it can lead to social change and give people the tools to make that change in ways that are important to their communities.

Disadvantages

• These studies have a hard time being generalized and are hard to repeat because they are so flexible. Because the researcher has the power to draw conclusions, they are often not thought to be theoretically sound.
• Setting up an action study in an ethical way can be hard. People may feel like they have to take part or take part in a certain way.
• It is prone to research errors like selection bias , social desirability bias, and other cognitive biases.

Why QuestionPro Research Suite is Great for Action Research?

QuestionPro Research Suite is an ideal choice for action research, which typically involves multiple rounds of data collection , analysis, and intervention cycles. This is one reason it might be great for that:

01. Data Collection

QuestionPro offers flexible and adaptable methods for data dissemination. You can collect and store crucial business data from secure, personalized questionnaires , and distribute them through emails, SMSs, or even popular social media platforms and mobile apps.

This adaptability is particularly useful for action research, which often requires a variety of data collection techniques.

02. Advanced Analysis Tools

• Efficient Data Analysis: Built-in tools simplify both quantitative and qualitative analysis.
• Powerful Segmentation: Cross-tabulation lets you compare and track changes across cycles.
• Reliable Insights: This robust toolset enhances confidence in research outcomes.

03. Collaboration and Real-Time Reporting

Multiple researchers can collaborate within the platform, sharing permissions and changes in real-time while creating reports. Asynchronous collaboration: Conversation threads and comments can be in one place, ensuring all team members stay updated and are aligned with stakeholders throughout each action research phase.

04. User-Friendly Interface

At the user level, what kind of data visualization charts/graphs, tables, etc., should be provided to visualize the complex findings most often done through these)? Across all solutions, we need fully customizable dashboards to offer perfect vision to different people so they can make decisions and take action based on this data.

05. Automation and Integration Capabilities

• Workflow Automation: Enables recurring surveys or updates to run seamlessly.
• Time Savings: Frees up time in long-term research projects.
• Integrations: Connects with popular CRMs and other applications.
• Simplified Data Addition: This makes incorporating data from external sources easy.

These features make QuestionPro Research Suite a powerful tool for action research. It makes it easy to manage data, conduct analyses, and drive actionable insights through iterative research cycles.

Action research is a dynamic and participatory approach that empowers individuals and communities to address real-world challenges through systematic inquiry and reflection.

The methods used in action research help gather valuable insights and foster continuous improvement, leading to meaningful change across various fields. By promoting iterative cycles, action research generates knowledge and encourages a culture of learning and adaptation, making it a crucial tool for driving transformation.

At QuestionPro, we give researchers tools for collecting data, like our survey software, and a library of insights for any long-term study. Go to the Research Suite if you want to see a demo or learn more about it.

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Frequently Asked Questions(FAQ’s)

Action research is a systematic approach to inquiry that involves identifying a problem or challenge in a practical context, implementing interventions or changes, collecting and analyzing data, and using the findings to inform decision-making and drive positive change.

Action research can be conducted by various individuals or groups, including teachers, administrators, researchers, and educational practitioners. It is often carried out by those directly involved in the educational setting where the research takes place.

The steps of action research typically include identifying a problem, reviewing relevant literature, designing interventions or changes, collecting and analyzing data, reflecting on findings, and implementing improvements based on the results.

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Action Research: Steps, Benefits, and Tips

Introduction

History of action research, what is the definition of action research, types of action research, conducting action research.

Action research is an approach to qualitative inquiry in social science research that involves the search for practical solutions to everyday issues. Rooted in real-world problems, it seeks not just to understand but also to act, bringing about positive change in specific contexts. Often distinguished by its collaborative nature, the action research process goes beyond traditional research paradigms by emphasizing the involvement of those being studied in resolving social conflicts and effecting positive change.

The value of action research lies not just in its outcomes, but also in the process itself, where stakeholders become active participants rather than mere subjects. In this article, we'll examine action research in depth, shedding light on its history, principles, and types of action research.

Tracing its roots back to the mid-20th century, Kurt Lewin developed classical action research as a response to traditional research methods in the social sciences that often sidelined the very communities they studied. Proponents of action research championed the idea that research should not just be an observational exercise but an actionable one that involves devising practical solutions. Advocates believed in the idea of research leading to immediate social action, emphasizing the importance of involving the community in the process.

Applications for action research

Over the years, action research has evolved and diversified. From its early applications in social psychology and organizational development, it has branched out into various fields such as education, healthcare, and community development, informing questions around improving schools, minority problems, and more. This growth wasn't just in application, but also in its methodologies.

How is action research different?

Like all research methodologies, effective action research generates knowledge. However, action research stands apart in its commitment to instigate tangible change. Traditional research often places emphasis on passive observation , employing data collection methods primarily to contribute to broader theoretical frameworks . In contrast, action research is inherently proactive, intertwining the acts of observing and acting.

The primary goal isn't just to understand a problem but to solve or alleviate it. Action researchers partner closely with communities, ensuring that the research process directly benefits those involved. This collaboration often leads to immediate interventions, tweaks, or solutions applied in real-time, marking a departure from other forms of research that might wait until the end of a study to make recommendations.

This proactive, change-driven nature makes action research particularly impactful in settings where immediate change is not just beneficial but essential.

Action research is best understood as a systematic approach to cooperative inquiry. Unlike traditional research methodologies that might primarily focus on generating knowledge, action research emphasizes producing actionable solutions for pressing real-world challenges.

This form of research undertakes a cyclic and reflective journey, typically cycling through stages of planning , acting, observing, and reflecting. A defining characteristic of action research is the collaborative spirit it embodies, often dissolving the rigid distinction between the researcher and the researched, leading to mutual learning and shared outcomes.

Advantages of action research

One of the foremost benefits of action research is the immediacy of its application. Since the research is embedded within real-world issues, any findings or solutions derived can often be integrated straightaway, catalyzing prompt improvements within the concerned community or organization. This immediacy is coupled with the empowering nature of the methodology. Participants aren't mere subjects; they actively shape the research process, giving them a tangible sense of ownership over both the research journey and its eventual outcomes.

Moreover, the inherent adaptability of action research allows researchers to tweak their approaches responsively based on live feedback. This ensures the research remains rooted in the evolving context, capturing the nuances of the situation and making any necessary adjustments. Lastly, this form of research tends to offer a comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand, harmonizing socially constructed theoretical knowledge with hands-on insights, leading to a richer, more textured understanding.

Disadvantages of action research

Like any methodology, action research isn't devoid of challenges. Its iterative nature, while beneficial, can extend timelines. Researchers might find themselves engaged in multiple cycles of observation, reflection, and action before arriving at a satisfactory conclusion. The intimate involvement of the researcher with the research participants , although key to collaboration, opens doors to potential conflicts. Through collaborative problem solving, disagreements can lead to richer and more nuanced solutions, but it can take considerable time and effort.

Another limitation stems from its focus on a specific context: results derived from a particular action research project might not always resonate or be applicable in a different context or with a different group. Lastly, the depth of collaboration this methodology demands means all stakeholders need to be deeply invested, and such a level of commitment might not always be feasible.

Examples of action research

To illustrate, let's consider a few scenarios. Imagine a classroom where a teacher observes dwindling student participation. Instead of sticking to conventional methods, the teacher experiments with introducing group-based activities. As the outcomes unfold, the teacher continually refines the approach based on student feedback, eventually leading to a teaching strategy that rejuvenates student engagement.

In a healthcare context, hospital staff who recognize growing patient anxiety related to certain procedures might innovate by introducing a new patient-informing protocol. As they study the effects of this change, they could, through iterations, sculpt a procedure that diminishes patient anxiety.

Similarly, in the realm of community development, a community grappling with the absence of child-friendly public spaces might collaborate with local authorities to conceptualize a park. As they monitor its utilization and societal impact, continual feedback could refine the park's infrastructure and design.

Contemporary action research, while grounded in the core principles of collaboration, reflection, and change, has seen various adaptations tailored to the specific needs of different contexts and fields. These adaptations have led to the emergence of distinct types of action research, each with its unique emphasis and approach.

Collaborative action research

Collaborative action research emphasizes the joint efforts of professionals, often from the same field, working together to address common concerns or challenges. In this approach, there's a strong emphasis on shared responsibility, mutual respect, and co-learning. For example, a group of classroom teachers might collaboratively investigate methods to improve student literacy, pooling their expertise and resources to devise, implement, and refine strategies for improving teaching.

Participatory action research

Participatory action research (PAR) goes a step further in dissolving the barriers between the researcher and the researched. It actively involves community members or stakeholders not just as participants, but as equal partners in the entire research process. PAR is deeply democratic and seeks to empower participants, fostering a sense of agency and ownership. For instance, a participatory research project might involve local residents in studying and addressing community health concerns, ensuring that the research process and outcomes are both informed by and beneficial to the community itself.

Educational action research

Educational action research is tailored specifically to practical educational contexts. Here, educators take on the dual role of teacher and researcher, seeking to improve teaching practices, curricula, classroom dynamics, or educational evaluation. This type of research is cyclical, with educators implementing changes, observing outcomes, and reflecting on results to continually enhance the educational experience. An example might be a teacher studying the impact of technology integration in her classroom, adjusting strategies based on student feedback and learning outcomes.

Community-based action research

Another noteworthy type is community-based action research, which focuses primarily on community development and well-being. Rooted in the principles of social justice, this approach emphasizes the collective power of community members to identify, study, and address their challenges. It's particularly powerful in grassroots movements and local development projects where community insights and collaboration drive meaningful, sustainable change.

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Engaging in action research is rooted in practicality yet deeply connected to theory. Action researchers should take the essentials of an action research study and the significance of a typical research cycle into consideration.

Understanding the action research cycle

At the heart of action research is its cycle, a structured yet adaptable framework guiding the research. This cycle embodies the iterative nature of action research, emphasizing that learning and change evolve through repetition and reflection.

The typical stages include:

• Identifying a problem : This is the starting point where the action researcher pinpoints a pressing issue or challenge that demands attention.
• Planning : Here, the researcher devises an action research strategy aimed at addressing the identified problem. In action research, network resources, participant consultation, and the literature review are core components in planning.
• Action : The planned strategies are then implemented in this stage. This 'action' phase is where theoretical knowledge meets practical application.
• Observation : Post-implementation, the researcher observes the outcomes and effects of the action. This stage ensures that the research remains grounded in the real-world context.
• Critical reflection : This part of the cycle involves analyzing the observed results to draw conclusions about their effectiveness and identify areas for improvement.
• Revision : Based on the insights from reflection, the initial plan is revised, marking the beginning of another cycle.

Rigorous research and iteration

It's essential to understand that while action research is deeply practical, it doesn't sacrifice rigor . The cyclical process ensures that the research remains thorough and robust. Each iteration of the cycle in an action research project refines the approach, drawing it closer to an effective solution.

The role of the action researcher

The action researcher stands at the nexus of theory and practice. Not just an observer, the researcher actively engages with the study's participants, collaboratively navigating through the research cycle by conducting interviews, participant observations, and member checking . This close involvement ensures that the study remains relevant, timely, and responsive.

Drawing conclusions and informing theory

As the research progresses through multiple iterations of data collection and data analysis , drawing conclusions becomes an integral aspect. These conclusions, while immediately beneficial in addressing the practical issue at hand, also serve a broader purpose. They inform theory, enriching the academic discourse and providing valuable insights for future research.

Identifying actionable insights

Keep in mind that action research should facilitate implications for professional practice as well as space for systematic inquiry. As you draw conclusions about the knowledge generated from action research, consider how this knowledge can create new forms of solutions to the pressing concern you set out to address.

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Action Research

Action research can be defined as “an approach in which the action researcher and a client collaborate in the diagnosis of the problem and in the development of a solution based on the diagnosis” [1] . In other words, one of the main characteristic traits of action research relates to collaboration between researcher and member of organisation in order to solve organizational problems.

Action study assumes social world to be constantly changing, both, researcher and research being one part of that change. [2] Generally, action researches can be divided into three categories: positivist, interpretive and critical.

Positivist approach to action research , also known as ‘classical action research’ perceives research as a social experiment. Accordingly, action research is accepted as a method to test hypotheses in a real world environment.

Interpretive action research , also known as ‘contemporary action research’ perceives business reality as socially constructed and focuses on specifications of local and organisational factors when conducting the action research.

Critical action research is a specific type of action research that adopts critical approach towards business processes and aims for improvements.

The following features of action research need to be taken into account when considering its suitability for any given study:

• It is applied in order to improve specific practices.  Action research is based on action, evaluation and critical analysis of practices based on collected data in order to introduce improvements in relevant practices.
• This type of research is facilitated by participation and collaboration of number of individuals with a common purpose
• Such a research focuses on specific situations and their context

Advantages of Action Research

• High level of practical relevance of the business research;
• Can be used with quantitative, as well as, qualitative data;
• Possibility to gain in-depth knowledge about the problem.

Disadvantages of Action Research

• Difficulties in distinguishing between action and research and ensure the application of both;
• Delays in completion of action research due to a wide range of reasons are not rare occurrences
• Lack of repeatability and rigour

It is important to make a clear distinction between action research and consulting. Specifically, action research is greater than consulting in a way that action research includes both action and research, whereas business activities of consulting are limited action without the research.

Action Research Spiral

Action study is a participatory study consisting of spiral of following self-reflective cycles:

• Planning in order to initiate change
• Implementing the change (acting) and observing the process of implementation and consequences
• Reflecting on processes of change and re-planning
• Acting and observing

Kemmis and McTaggart (2000) do acknowledge that individual stages specified in Action Research Spiral model may overlap, and initial plan developed for the research may become obselete in short duration of time due to a range of factors.

The main advantage of Action Research Spiral model relates to the opportunity of analysing the phenomenon in a greater depth each time, consequently resulting in grater level of understanding of the problem.

Disadvantages of Action Research Spiral model include its assumption each process takes long time to be completed which may not always be the case.

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References 

[1] Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2011) “Business Research Methods” 3 rd  edition, Oxford University Press

[2] Collis, J. & Hussey, R. (2003) “Business Research. A Practical Guide for Undergraduate and Graduate Students” 2nd edition, Palgrave Macmillan

Action Research

Action research is a form of study where sociologists intentionally alter people’s behavior to evaluate the results. It often appears in classroom research as modifications are made to improve student achievement. It refers to a study that attempts to alter social behavior while simultaneously evaluating it after it has changed. The research participants are encouraged to participate at different points throughout a quick-moving study-action sequence. In this study, the researcher also acts as a change agent.

Explanation

Action research is a term used to explain democratic, participatory procedures in which action is conducted in a social context that results in changes while facilitating social research regarding action for improvement via participation and supporting social research in general.

Improved performance in a commercial company, a better knowledge of how people affect the environment, adult education programs, the preservation of finite natural resources like fish populations or oil, and a myriad of other issues can be the focus of action.

Formative and Summative Action Research

There is a need for action whenever there is a social problem. Therefore, both formative and summative research is conducted in action research.

Stakeholders participate in formative research by defining significant concerns, identifying potential areas for improvement, selecting what to change and how to improve it, and creating methods for determining whether progress has been made or not.

Summative research comprises the consolidation of information gained via the action phase. This knowledge includes the ideas and models created, the instruments and procedures used, and even the methodology made or used to guide the action process. It’s the contemplative practice in action.

Summative research offers a practical experience that the larger research community and upcoming action researchers may use. Action, as well as the formative and summative cycles, are continuing in the majority of social environments, including organizations.

Democratizing social action

Meaningful involvement of all stakeholders in the research process and action for change, to the extent that this is realistically possible, is one of the core concepts of action research. Stakeholders are individuals engaged in and impacted by a process, such as judgments on what constitutes progress and, therefore, what course of action to pursue. Thus, action research can democratize social action and social research methods. Additionally, some action researchers present their work as a way to do emancipatory social research and emancipatory social activities.

Knowledge acquisition – Natural sciences vs. Social Sciences

The acquisition of knowledge in the social sciences differs from that in the natural sciences. Because they believe that the natural world is consistent throughout time and that it is feasible to agree about natural occurrences, natural scientists emphasize the reproducibility of experimental findings.

On the other hand, action researchers in social sciences highlight the constantly shifting and subjective nature of social reality and the fact that intersubjective dialogue is the only way researchers can help others acquire knowledge.

Validity of social knowledge

“Practical reasoning engaged in via action is the source of valid social knowledge in action research.” The context from which information is produced is thus referred to as the validity of social knowledge acquired via action research. It depends on the setting. As a result, even though information gained via an action research approach may be helpful in other social situations, knowledge is not considered concrete enough to apply to all social circumstances.

Checkland and Holwell

Although Checkland and Holwell acknowledge that action research results cannot be replicated in the same way they can in the natural sciences, they assert that the results can and should be retrieved by interested third parties.

Recoverability entails that the process’ formative steps and summative results are made visible and, as a result, more reliable. As a result, it is crucial to specify the concepts and the methodological procedure through which action researchers will interpret their work and determine what qualifies as gained knowledge. This results in a “truth claim” greater than simple “plausibility” but weaker than laboratory testing.

Without a means of “recoverability” embedded into the design, action research can only claim “plausibility,” according to Checkland and Holwell. There are many methods and approaches that may be used in the action research process.

They include various qualitative and quantitative methodologies from several social science fields. The methodology guides the process and interprets the results to determine whether an improvement process is considered action research, not the tools and techniques used.

Discussion and Dialogue

Instead of just “discussion,” “dialogue” is the primary motivator in action research approaches. In discussions, there are victors and losers because ideas are presented and defended. This is not appropriate for action research.

Action researchers must suspend their opinions during dialogue to examine the mental models of other stakeholders and participants.

Only until individuals begin to “see through others’ eyes” to get a proper grasp of the many views and values that permeate all social circumstances can learning and comprehension begin.

In this approach, dialogue encourages active engagement, helps participants understand one another better, and produces results like adjustments that consider all participants’ requirements.

What defines appropriate dialogical methods for development and learning in social environments is a topic of lively discussion in action research.

Methodological Approaches

The principal methodological approaches are outlined here.

A. Action inquiry

Action inquiry provides research in the first, second, and third person that individuals perform in the middle of their own continuous activities at home or work.

B. Action Science

The goal of action science is to close the gap between social research and social practice by developing theories that explain social phenomena, guide activity, and uphold the basic principles of science.

C. Appreciative Inquiry

Positive action research techniques like appreciative inquiry enable groups and communities of people to realize their full creative and constructive potential.

D. Clinical Inquiry

In order to get deeper and more accurate information, clinical inquiry encourages researchers to base their study on the requirements of the client system and seek to build a healthy connection with that system.

E. Community Action

A notion of learning communities that integrate research, capacity development, and practice, as well as a shared understanding of why such integration is both vital and challenging, form the foundation of the cooperative approach offered by community action research.

F. Cooperative inquiry

By using a thoughtful method of bridging the gap between research and how we live and collaborate, cooperative inquiry is a technique of doing collaborative research with people on issues of practical significance to them.

G. Participatory research

Participatory research is a philosophy of life, a political decision, or both supporting groups often left out of or disenfranchised from the dominant knowledge discourses.

Origin of action research – Kurt Lewin

Action research is based on Kurt Lewin’s social research from the 1940s. In the 1943 publication, Lewin reported on the training of homemakers in cooking and the effects on their daily cooking habits in their families. Lewin took a significant stride by studying in a real-world social context instead of the “laboratory science” that had previously dominated the research process.

With Lewin’s strategy, organizations were intentionally and methodically changed to encourage participation.

Lewin’s work impacted both researches on team processes and experiential education regarding interpersonal communication in career development.

Tavistock Institute of Human Relations

The Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, which applied Lewin’s concept of study in actual social situations, advanced this legacy of social inquiry.

Their socio-technical philosophy was defined by psychoanalytic study and an emphasis on action. The most well-known Tavistock study was carried out in the British coal mining sector. This was the first genuine socio-technical study that opened the door for action research, not an action research study per se.

The issue was that technological innovation did not result in more efficiency, and the sector was curious as to why.

According to Trist and Bamforth, production technology and work organization are intimately related. However, the incompatibility between demands imposed by modern technology and what benefits miners as a community of interdependent humans led to inefficiency.

Trist and Bamforth’s discoveries moved social science away from Tayloristic reductionist techniques that promote specialization via restricted work groups and towards more comprehensive real-world social research, which in turn impacted the development of the industrial democracy movement.

Industrial Democracy

Many significant firms, like Volvo, Saab Scania, and Alfa Laval, had their production methods and work habits changed by the later emergence of industrial democracy, which supported semi-autonomous work groups.

The quality management movement rapidly brought socio-technical ideas to North America and later to Japan.

The concept of comprehensive research in actual social contexts has permeated industrial practices worldwide by the 1980s.

 Hilary Bradbury and Peter Reason

While acknowledging the Lewin and Tavistock tradition’s influence on action research, Reason and Bradbury also point out significant intellectual advancements that gave birth to a core theoretical framework that would serve as the foundation for action research.

They highlight the criticism of scientism and positivist science that gave birth to fresh approaches to practice-based epistemology. They are aware of the Marxist maxim that improving the world is more essential than just comprehending it.

Reason and Bradbury highlight Freire’s work in education, the participatory research techniques used by activists fighting for the liberation of oppressed and disadvantaged people, and participatory rural assessment techniques as examples of this.

A traditional and systemic way

The systemic, or holistic, understanding of action research may be its most important foundation.

Action researchers understand that although human cognition cannot know everything, it can “know that we don’t know.” This is a significant advance in human knowledge.

Such knowledge emphasizes the pointlessness—let alone the hostility—of conventional modes of activity based on scientific prediction and management, which rule today’s social and organizational structures. Such methods are useless since social dynamics will always be beyond individual control.

Such methods are antagonistic because they target a person’s spiritual health by separating them from one another and treating individuals like things rather than understanding the patterns of interaction that bring them together in a single dynamic.

The use of systems thinking broadens and enriches research. Put another way, action research conducted with a systemic viewpoint can provide meaning that powerfully relates to individual experiences in a fundamentally systemic world.

Example of Action Research

In this kind of study, the researcher not only examines a social phenomenon but also helps to alter it, often in an experimental way. Examples might include evaluations of new criminal justice plans requiring criminals to meet their victims and hear their testimonies of how the crimes affected them.

Such strategies align with the fact that many organizations and groups commission social research to comprehend an issue and find a solution.

Another example is the British community development initiatives of the 1970s.

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Chapter 7: Action Research

Darshini Ayton

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Explain the purpose of an action research approach.
• Explain the action research cycle.
• Describe action research characteristics.

What is action research?

The key concept in action research is change or action .

Action research (also known as ‘participatory action research’) aligns well with the practice of health and social care because researchers and practitioners in this discipline work with people and communities in holistic and relational ways to understand the history, culture and context of the setting. Action research aims to understand the setting and improve it through change or action. 1 This method has its roots in activism and advocacy and is focused on solutions. It is practical and deals with real-world problems and issues. Action research often undergoes phases in seeking to understand the problem, plan a solution, implement the solution and then reflect on or evaluate the solution, cyclically and iteratively. Action research is used in the practice of health and social care because it has two fundamental aims: to improve and to involve. This chapter outlines how this is evident, using examples from the research literature (see Table 7.1.).

Action research as involvement

Action research is a collaborative process between researchers and community members. This process is a core component of action research and represents a significant shift from typical research methods. Through action research, those who are being researched become the researchers, with close consideration given to power dynamics. The research participants become partners in the research and are involved in identifying and prioritising the research area, designing and undertaking data collection, conducting data analysis, and interpreting and disseminating the results. 1 The research partners may be provided with support and training to enable them to undertake these activities and to promote empowerment and capacity building (see examples following). Patient and public involvement in research and healthcare improvement (known in Australia as ‘consumer and community involvement’), has led to action research gaining popularity as a research design that captures the ‘living knowledge’ with, for and by people and communities throughout the research journey.

As an example, in the project Relationships Matter for Youth ‘Aging Out’ of Care, 2 Doucet and colleagues aimed to examine relationships that matter to young people in care and how these relationships can be nurtured and supported over time. The project is a collaborative participatory action research study incorporating photovoice (see Chapter 17 for more information on photovoice). Eight young people, formerly in care and from diverse backgrounds, were recruited to the study. The lead researcher highlighted their own lived experience of the child welfare system and a consciousness of the power dynamics at play. The lead researcher created processes within the project to ensure the youth co-researchers were empowered to share their experiences and that the research team members were working with the youth co-researchers and not for them. These processes included three months of weekly facilitated group discussions, shared meals before project commencement and group outings and community engagement during the project to encourage connection, bonding and trust. The youth co-researchers were provided with photography training and digital cameras. Data collection included the youth co-researchers submitting 6–7 photographs with responses to the following questions for photo contextualisation:

• What does this photograph mean to you? Why is this photo, in particular, most significant to you?
• How do you see this photo as a reflection of the issue of supportive long-term relationships – and one that is relevant to you as a former youth in care in your community?
• What is the relationship between the content of the photo and how you perceive the community or the world around you? What recommendation for change in your community is associated with this photo? 2(para22)

The photographs were showcased at an exhibition that was open to the community; those in attendance included policymakers, advocates and community representatives. The change documented through this project was one of social transformation for the community and self-transformation and healing for the individuals.

Action research as improvement

Action research can be practitioner-led, whereby the study investigates problems identified by the practitioner with the goal of understanding and improving practice over time. Improvement can be both social improvement and healthcare improvement. Healthcare improvement, in particular quality (of healthcare) improvement, has been the focus of clinical practice, research, education and advocacy for more than 30 years. The two main frameworks guiding healthcare and quality improvement efforts are the Plan, Do, Study, Act (PDSA) cycle and Learning Health Systems. 3 Both of these frameworks lend themselves to action research. For example, the PDSA cycle is guided by three overarching questions:

• What are we trying to accomplish?
• How will we know that a change is an improvement?
• What change can we make that will result in improvement? 4(Figure1)

Learning Health Systems is another approach to quality improvement that has gained popularity over the past decade. Data collected by health services (e.g. patient data, health records, laboratory results) are used for knowledge creation in continuous and rapid cycles of study, feedback and practice change. 5 A Learning Health Systems framework incorporates systems science, data science, research methods for real-world contexts, implementation science, participatory research and quality improvement approaches.

Van Heerden and colleagues adopted an action research study to transform the practice and environment of neonatal care in the maternity section of a district hospital in South Africa. The study Strategies to sustain a quality improvement initiative in neonatal resuscitation 6 was conducted in three cycles. Cycle 1 was a situation analysis that explored and described the existing practices and factors influencing neonatal resuscitation and mortality in the hospital through administering questionnaires with nurses (n=69); a focus group with nine doctors; and an analysis of hospital records. A nominal group discussion (structured group discussion including prioritisation) was conducted with 10 managers and staff, followed by a reflective meeting with the project’s steering committee. Cycle 2 developed and implemented strategies to sustain a quality improvement initiative. The strategies addressed training, equipment and stock, staff attitudes, staff shortages, transport transfer for critically ill neonates, and protocols. Cycle 3 was an evaluation of change and sustainability after the implementation of strategies (Cycle 2) and involved the analysis of hospital record data, repeat questionnaire with nurses (n=40), focus group discussion with 10 doctors, steering committee and management members, followed by reflective meetings with the steering committee. Qualitative data was analysed through open coding, and quantitative data was analysed descriptively. The neonatal mortality rate declined (yet still needed to improve) and the implementation strategies facilitated change that led to improvement and practice transformation.

Action research as a methodology or an approach

There is debate as to whether action research is a methodology or an approach, since several different research methods and methodologies can be used. For example, multiple forms of data collection can be utilized, including quantitative data from surveys or medical records, to inform the identification and understanding of the problem and evaluation of the solution. Action research can also draw on descriptive qualitative research, quantitative cross-sectional studies, case studies (see Chapter 8 ), ethnography ( Chapter 9 ) and grounded theory ( Chapter 10 ). Action research can therefore take a purely qualitative approach, or can take a mixed-methods approach. See Table 7.1. for examples of action research studies.

Advantages and disadvantages of action research

Action research addresses practical problems, drawing on principles of empowerment, capacity-building and participation. The research problem to be addressed is typically identified by the community, and the solutions are for the community. The research participants are collaborators in the research process. The examples presented in this chapter demonstrate how the research collaborators and co-researchers received training and support to lead elements of the project. Another advantage of action research is that it is a continuous cycle of development. Hence, the approach is iterative and the full solution can take multiple cycles and iterations to develop and sustain. 7,8

Since action research is fundamentally about relationships and integrating research into the real world, studies can take years to result in a solution. It is important to be able to adapt and be flexible in response to community and stakeholder needs and contexts. The research can therefore be constrained by what is practical and also ethical within the setting. This may limit the scope and scale of the research and compromise its rigour. Action research can also create unanticipated work for community members and participants because they are not usually involved in research in this way, and thus training may be required, as well as remuneration for time and experience. 7,8

Action research is a research design in which researchers and community members work together to identify problems, design and implement solutions and evaluate the impact of these solutions. Change or action is a core component of this research design.

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Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Darshini Ayton; Tess Tsindos; Danielle Berkovic is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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