topics for research in biotechnology

200+ Biotechnology Research Topics: Let’s Shape the Future

In the dynamic landscape of scientific exploration, biotechnology stands at the forefront, revolutionizing the way we approach healthcare, agriculture, and environmental sustainability. This interdisciplinary field encompasses a vast array of research topics that hold the potential to reshape our world. 

In this blog post, we will delve into the realm of biotechnology research topics, understanding their significance and exploring the diverse avenues that researchers are actively investigating.

Overview of Biotechnology Research

Table of Contents

Biotechnology, at its core, involves the application of biological systems, organisms, or derivatives to develop technologies and products for the benefit of humanity. 

The scope of biotechnology research is broad, covering areas such as genetic engineering, biomedical engineering, environmental biotechnology, and industrial biotechnology. Its interdisciplinary nature makes it a melting pot of ideas and innovations, pushing the boundaries of what is possible.

How to Select The Best Biotechnology Research Topics?

• Identify Your Interests

Start by reflecting on your own interests within the broad field of biotechnology. What aspects of biotechnology excite you the most? Identifying your passion will make the research process more engaging.

• Stay Informed About Current Trends

Keep up with the latest developments and trends in biotechnology. Subscribe to scientific journals, attend conferences, and follow reputable websites to stay informed about cutting-edge research. This will help you identify gaps in knowledge or areas where advancements are needed.

• Consider Societal Impact

Evaluate the potential societal impact of your chosen research topic. How does it contribute to solving real-world problems? Biotechnology has applications in healthcare, agriculture, environmental conservation, and more. Choose a topic that aligns with the broader goal of improving quality of life or addressing global challenges.

• Assess Feasibility and Resources

Evaluate the feasibility of your research topic. Consider the availability of resources, including laboratory equipment, funding, and expertise. A well-defined and achievable research plan will increase the likelihood of successful outcomes.

• Explore Innovation Opportunities

Look for opportunities to contribute to innovation within the field. Consider topics that push the boundaries of current knowledge, introduce novel methodologies, or explore interdisciplinary approaches. Innovation often leads to groundbreaking discoveries.

• Consult with Mentors and Peers

Seek guidance from mentors, professors, or colleagues who have expertise in biotechnology. Discuss your research interests with them and gather insights. They can provide valuable advice on the feasibility and significance of your chosen topic.

• Balance Specificity and Breadth

Strike a balance between biotechnology research topics that are specific enough to address a particular aspect of biotechnology and broad enough to allow for meaningful research. A topic that is too narrow may limit your research scope, while one that is too broad may lack focus.

• Consider Ethical Implications

Be mindful of the ethical implications of your research. Biotechnology, especially areas like genetic engineering, can raise ethical concerns. Ensure that your chosen topic aligns with ethical standards and consider how your research may impact society.

• Evaluate Industry Relevance

Consider the relevance of your research topic to the biotechnology industry. Industry-relevant research has the potential for practical applications and may attract funding and collaboration opportunities.

• Stay Flexible and Open-Minded

Be open to refining or adjusting your research topic as you delve deeper into the literature and gather more information. Flexibility is key to adapting to new insights and developments in the field.

200+ Biotechnology Research Topics: Category-Wise

Genetic engineering.

• CRISPR-Cas9: Recent Advances and Applications
• Gene Editing for Therapeutic Purposes: Opportunities and Challenges
• Precision Medicine and Personalized Genomic Therapies
• Genome Sequencing Technologies: Current State and Future Prospects
• Synthetic Biology: Engineering New Life Forms
• Genetic Modification of Crops for Improved Yield and Resistance
• Ethical Considerations in Human Genetic Engineering
• Gene Therapy for Neurological Disorders
• Epigenetics: Understanding the Role of Gene Regulation
• CRISPR in Agriculture: Enhancing Crop Traits

Biomedical Engineering

• Tissue Engineering: Creating Organs in the Lab
• 3D Printing in Biomedical Applications
• Advances in Drug Delivery Systems
• Nanotechnology in Medicine: Theranostic Approaches
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology in Biomedicine
• Wearable Biomedical Devices for Health Monitoring
• Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine
• Precision Oncology: Tailoring Cancer Treatments
• Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications
• Biomechanics in Biomedical Engineering

Environmental Biotechnology

• Bioremediation of Polluted Environments
• Waste-to-Energy Technologies: Turning Trash into Power
• Sustainable Agriculture Practices Using Biotechnology
• Bioaugmentation in Wastewater Treatment
• Microbial Fuel Cells: Harnessing Microorganisms for Energy
• Biotechnology in Conservation Biology
• Phytoremediation: Plants as Environmental Cleanup Agents
• Aquaponics: Integration of Aquaculture and Hydroponics
• Biodiversity Monitoring Using DNA Barcoding
• Algal Biofuels: A Sustainable Energy Source

Industrial Biotechnology

• Enzyme Engineering for Industrial Applications
• Bioprocessing and Bio-manufacturing Innovations
• Industrial Applications of Microbial Biotechnology
• Bio-based Materials: Eco-friendly Alternatives
• Synthetic Biology for Industrial Processes
• Metabolic Engineering for Chemical Production
• Industrial Fermentation: Optimization and Scale-up
• Biocatalysis in Pharmaceutical Industry
• Advanced Bioprocess Monitoring and Control
• Green Chemistry: Sustainable Practices in Industry

Emerging Trends in Biotechnology

• CRISPR-Based Diagnostics: A New Era in Disease Detection
• Neurobiotechnology: Advancements in Brain-Computer Interfaces
• Advances in Nanotechnology for Healthcare
• Computational Biology: Modeling Biological Systems
• Organoids: Miniature Organs for Drug Testing
• Genome Editing in Non-Human Organisms
• Biotechnology and the Internet of Things (IoT)
• Exosome-based Therapeutics: Potential Applications
• Biohybrid Systems: Integrating Living and Artificial Components
• Metagenomics: Exploring Microbial Communities

Ethical and Social Implications

• Ethical Considerations in CRISPR-Based Gene Editing
• Privacy Concerns in Personal Genomic Data Sharing
• Biotechnology and Social Equity: Bridging the Gap
• Dual-Use Dilemmas in Biotechnological Research
• Informed Consent in Genetic Testing and Research
• Accessibility of Biotechnological Therapies: Global Perspectives
• Human Enhancement Technologies: Ethical Perspectives
• Biotechnology and Cultural Perspectives on Genetic Modification
• Social Impact Assessment of Biotechnological Interventions
• Intellectual Property Rights in Biotechnology

Computational Biology and Bioinformatics

• Machine Learning in Biomedical Data Analysis
• Network Biology: Understanding Biological Systems
• Structural Bioinformatics: Predicting Protein Structures
• Data Mining in Genomics and Proteomics
• Systems Biology Approaches in Biotechnology
• Comparative Genomics: Evolutionary Insights
• Bioinformatics Tools for Drug Discovery
• Cloud Computing in Biomedical Research
• Artificial Intelligence in Diagnostics and Treatment
• Computational Approaches to Vaccine Design

Health and Medicine

• Vaccines and Immunotherapy: Advancements in Disease Prevention
• CRISPR-Based Therapies for Genetic Disorders
• Infectious Disease Diagnostics Using Biotechnology
• Telemedicine and Biotechnology Integration
• Biotechnology in Rare Disease Research
• Gut Microbiome and Human Health
• Precision Nutrition: Personalized Diets Using Biotechnology
• Biotechnology Approaches to Combat Antibiotic Resistance
• Point-of-Care Diagnostics for Global Health
• Biotechnology in Aging Research and Longevity

Agricultural Biotechnology

• CRISPR and Gene Editing in Crop Improvement
• Precision Agriculture: Integrating Technology for Crop Management
• Biotechnology Solutions for Food Security
• RNA Interference in Pest Control
• Vertical Farming and Biotechnology
• Plant-Microbe Interactions for Sustainable Agriculture
• Biofortification: Enhancing Nutritional Content in Crops
• Smart Farming Technologies and Biotechnology
• Precision Livestock Farming Using Biotechnological Tools
• Drought-Tolerant Crops: Biotechnological Approaches

Biotechnology and Education

• Integrating Biotechnology into STEM Education
• Virtual Labs in Biotechnology Teaching
• Biotechnology Outreach Programs for Schools
• Online Courses in Biotechnology: Accessibility and Quality
• Hands-on Biotechnology Experiments for Students
• Bioethics Education in Biotechnology Programs
• Role of Internships in Biotechnology Education
• Collaborative Learning in Biotechnology Classrooms
• Biotechnology Education for Non-Science Majors
• Addressing Gender Disparities in Biotechnology Education

Funding and Policy

• Government Funding Initiatives for Biotechnology Research
• Private Sector Investment in Biotechnology Ventures
• Impact of Intellectual Property Policies on Biotechnology
• Ethical Guidelines for Biotechnological Research
• Public-Private Partnerships in Biotechnology
• Regulatory Frameworks for Gene Editing Technologies
• Biotechnology and Global Health Policy
• Biotechnology Diplomacy: International Collaboration
• Funding Challenges in Biotechnology Startups
• Role of Nonprofit Organizations in Biotechnological Research

Biotechnology and the Environment

• Biotechnology for Air Pollution Control
• Microbial Sensors for Environmental Monitoring
• Remote Sensing in Environmental Biotechnology
• Climate Change Mitigation Using Biotechnology
• Circular Economy and Biotechnological Innovations
• Marine Biotechnology for Ocean Conservation
• Bio-inspired Design for Environmental Solutions
• Ecological Restoration Using Biotechnological Approaches
• Impact of Biotechnology on Biodiversity
• Biotechnology and Sustainable Urban Development

Biosecurity and Biosafety

• Biosecurity Measures in Biotechnology Laboratories
• Dual-Use Research and Ethical Considerations
• Global Collaboration for Biosafety in Biotechnology
• Security Risks in Gene Editing Technologies
• Surveillance Technologies in Biotechnological Research
• Biosecurity Education for Biotechnology Professionals
• Risk Assessment in Biotechnology Research
• Bioethics in Biodefense Research
• Biotechnology and National Security
• Public Awareness and Biosecurity in Biotechnology

Industry Applications

• Biotechnology in the Pharmaceutical Industry
• Bioprocessing Innovations for Drug Production
• Industrial Enzymes and Their Applications
• Biotechnology in Food and Beverage Production
• Applications of Synthetic Biology in Industry
• Biotechnology in Textile Manufacturing
• Cosmetic and Personal Care Biotechnology
• Biotechnological Approaches in Renewable Energy
• Advanced Materials Production Using Biotechnology
• Biotechnology in the Automotive Industry

Miscellaneous Topics

• DNA Barcoding in Species Identification
• Bioart: The Intersection of Biology and Art
• Biotechnology in Forensic Science
• Using Biotechnology to Preserve Cultural Heritage
• Biohacking: DIY Biology and Citizen Science
• Microbiome Engineering for Human Health
• Environmental DNA (eDNA) for Biodiversity Monitoring
• Biotechnology and Astrobiology: Searching for Life Beyond Earth
• Biotechnology and Sports Science
• Biotechnology and the Future of Space Exploration

Challenges and Ethical Considerations in Biotechnology Research

As biotechnology continues to advance, it brings forth a set of challenges and ethical considerations. Biosecurity concerns, especially in the context of gene editing technologies, raise questions about the responsible use of powerful tools like CRISPR. 

Ethical implications of genetic manipulation, such as the creation of designer babies, demand careful consideration and international collaboration to establish guidelines and regulations. 

Moreover, the environmental and social impact of biotechnological interventions must be thoroughly assessed to ensure responsible and sustainable practices.

Funding and Resources for Biotechnology Research

The pursuit of biotechnology research topics requires substantial funding and resources. Government grants and funding agencies play a pivotal role in supporting research initiatives. 

Simultaneously, the private sector, including biotechnology companies and venture capitalists, invest in promising projects. Collaboration and partnerships between academia, industry, and nonprofit organizations further amplify the impact of biotechnological research.

Future Prospects of Biotechnology Research

As we look to the future, the integration of biotechnology with other scientific disciplines holds immense potential. Collaborations with fields like artificial intelligence, materials science, and robotics may lead to unprecedented breakthroughs. 

The development of innovative technologies and their application to global health and sustainability challenges will likely shape the future of biotechnology.

In conclusion, biotechnology research is a dynamic and transformative force with the potential to revolutionize multiple facets of our lives. The exploration of diverse biotechnology research topics, from genetic engineering to emerging trends like synthetic biology and nanobiotechnology, highlights the breadth of possibilities within this field. 

However, researchers must navigate challenges and ethical considerations to ensure that biotechnological advancements are used responsibly for the betterment of society. 

With continued funding, collaboration, and a commitment to ethical practices, the future of biotechnology research holds exciting promise, propelling us towards a more sustainable and technologically advanced world.

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Top 50 Research Topics in Biotechnology

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Biotechnology

Research in biotechnology can helps in bringing massive changes in humankind and lead to a better life. In the last few years, there have been so many leaps, and paces of innovations as scientists worldwide worked to develop and produce novel mRNA vaccinations and brought some significant developments in biotechnology. During this period, they also faced many challenges. Disturbances in the supply chain and the pandemic significantly impacted biotech labs and researchers, forcing lab managers to become ingenious in buying lab supplies, planning experiments, and using technology for maintaining research schedules.

The Biotech Research Technique is changing

How research is being done is changing, as also how scientists are conducting it. Affected by both B2C eCommerce and growing independence in remote and cloud-dependent working, most of the biotechnology labs are going through some digital transformations. This implies more software, automation, and AI in the biotech lab, along with some latest digital procurement plans and integrated systems for various lab operations.

Look at some of the top trends in biotech research and recent Biotechnology Topics that are bringing massive changes in this vast world of science, resulting in some innovation in life sciences and biotechnology ideas .

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Open Access

The future is bright, the future is biotechnology

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Public Library of Science, San Francisco, California, United States of America and Cambridge, United Kingdom

• Richard Hodge, 
• on behalf of the PLOS Biology staff editors

Published: April 28, 2023

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002135
• Reader Comments

As PLOS Biology celebrates its 20 th anniversary, our April issue focuses on biotechnology with articles covering different aspects of the field, from genome editing to synthetic biology. With them, we emphasize our interest in expanding our presence in biotechnology research.

Citation: Hodge R, on behalf of the PLOS Biology staff editors (2023) The future is bright, the future is biotechnology. PLoS Biol 21(4): e3002135. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002135

Copyright: © 2023 Hodge, on behalf of the PLOS Biology staff editors. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The PLOS Biology Staff Editors are Ines Alvarez-Garcia, Joanna Clarke, RichardHodge, Paula Jauregui, Nonia Pariente, Roland Roberts, and Lucas Smith.

This article is part of the PLOS Biology 20th Anniversary Collection.

Biotechnology is a revolutionary branch of science at the forefront of research and innovation that has advanced rapidly in recent years. It is a broad discipline, in which organisms or biological processes are exploited to develop new technologies that have the potential to transform the way we live and work, as well as to boost sustainability and industrial productivity. The new tools and products being generated have a wide range of applications across various sectors, including medicine, agriculture, energy, manufacturing and food.

PLOS Biology has traditionally published research reporting significant advances across a wide range of biological disciplines. However, our scope must continue to evolve as biology increasingly becomes more and more applied, generating technologies with potentially game-changing therapeutic and environmental impact. To that end, we recently published a collection of magazine articles focused on ideas for green biotechnologies that could have an important role in a sustainable future [ 1 ], including how to harness microbial photosynthesis to directly generate electricity [ 2 ] and using microbes to develop carbon “sinks” in the mining industry [ 3 ]. Moreover, throughout this anniversary year we are publishing Perspective articles that take stock of the past 20 years of biological research in a specific field and look forward to what is to come in the next 20 years [ 4 ]; in this issue, these Perspectives focus on different aspects of the broad biotechnology field—synthetic biology [ 5 ] and the use of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for the delivery of therapeutics [ 6 ].

One fast moving area within biotechnology is gene editing therapy, which involves the alteration of DNA to treat or prevent disease using techniques such as CRISPR-Cas9 and base editors that enable precise genetic modifications to be made. This approach shows great promise for treating a variety of genetic diseases. Excitingly, promising phase I results of the first in vivo genome editing clinical trial to treat several liver-related diseases were reported at the recent Keystone Symposium on Precision Genome Engineering. This issue of PLOS Biology includes an Essay from Porto and Komor that focuses on the clinical applications of base editor technology [ 7 ], which could enable chronic diseases to be treated with a ‘one-and-done’ therapy, and a Perspective from Hamilton and colleagues that outlines the advances in the development of LNPs for the delivery of nucleic acid-based therapeutics [ 6 ]. LNPs are commonly used as vehicles for the delivery of such therapeutics because they have a low immunogenicity and can be manufactured at scale. However, expanding the toolbox of delivery platforms for these novel therapeutics will be critical to realise their full clinical potential.

Synthetic biology is also a rapidly growing area, whereby artificial or existing biological systems are designed to produce products or enhance cellular function. By using CRISPR to edit genes involved in metabolic pathways, researchers can create organisms that produce valuable compounds such as biofuels, drugs, and industrial chemicals. In their Perspective, Kitano and colleagues take stock of the technological advances that have propelled the “design-build-test-learn” cycle methodology forward in synthetic biology, as well as focusing on how machine-learning approaches can remove the bottlenecks in these pipelines [ 5 ].

While the potential of these technologies is vast, there are also concerns about their safety and ethical implications. Gene editing, in particular, raises ethical concerns, as it could be used to create so-called “designer babies” with specific traits or to enhance physical or mental capabilities. There are also concerns about the unintended consequences of gene editing, such as off-target effects that could cause unintended harm. These technologies can be improved by better understanding the interplay between editing tools and DNA repair pathways, and it will be essential for scientists and policymakers to be cautious and work together to establish guidelines and regulations for their use, as outlined at the recent International Summit on Human Genome Editing .

Basic research has also benefitted from biotechnological developments. For instance, methodological developments in super-resolution microscopy offer researchers the ability to image cells at exquisite detail and answer previously inaccessible research questions. Sequencing technologies such as Nanopore sequencers are revolutionising the ability to sequence long DNA/RNA reads in real time and in the field. Great strides have also been made in the development of analysis software for structural biology purposes, such as sub-tomogram averaging for cryo-EM [ 8 ]. The rate of scientific discovery is now at an unprecedented level in this age of big data as a result of these huge technological leaps.

The past few years has also seen the launch of AI tools such as ChatGPT. While these tools are increasingly being used to help write students homework or to improve the text of scientific papers, generative AI tools hold the potential to transform research and development in the biotechnology industry. The recently developed language model ProGen can generate and then predict function in protein sequences [ 9 ], and these models can also be used to find therapeutically relevant compounds for drug discovery. Protein structure prediction programs, such as AlphaFold [ 10 ] and RosettaFold, have revolutionized structural biology and can be used for a myriad of purposes. We have recently published several papers that have utilized AlphaFold models to develop methods that determine the structural context of post-translational modifications [ 11 ] and predict autophagy-related motifs in proteins [ 12 ].

The future of biotechnology is clearly very promising and we look forward to being part of the dissemination of these important new developments. Open access science sits at the core of our mission and the publication of these novel technologies in PLOS Biology can help their widespread adoption and ensure global access. As we look forward during this year of celebration, we are excited that biotechnology research will continue to grow and become a central part of the journal. The future is bright and the future is very much biotechnology.

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Top 50 Emerging Research Topics in Biotechnology

Trending Research Topics in Biotechnology

Biotechnology is a dynamic field that continuously shapes our world, enabling innovation, breakthroughs, and solutions to various challenges. As we move into the future, numerous emerging research areas promise to revolutionize healthcare, agriculture, environmental sustainability, and more. The top 50 emerging research topics in biotechnology are presented in this article.

1. Gene Editing and Genomic Engineering

a. CRISPR and Gene Editing

Precision Medicine : Developing targeted therapies for various diseases using CRISPR/Cas9 and other gene-editing tools.

Ethical Implications : Exploring and addressing ethical concerns surrounding CRISPR use in human embryos and germline editing.

Agricultural Advancements : Enhancing crop resistance and nutritional content through gene editing of improved farm outcomes.

Gene Drive Technology : Investigating the potential of gene drive technology to control vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue fever.

Regulatory Frameworks : Establishing global regulations for responsible gene editing applications in different fields.

b. Synthetic Biology

Bioengineering Microbes : Creating engineered microorganisms for sustainable production of fuels, pharmaceuticals, and materials.

Designer Organisms : Designing novel organisms with specific functionalities for environmental remediation or industrial processes.

Cell-Free Systems : Developing cell-free systems for various applications, including drug production and biosensors.

Biosecurity Measures : Addressing concerns regarding the potential misuse of synthetic biology for bioterrorism.

Standardization and Automation : Standardizing synthetic biology methodologies and automating processes to streamline production.

2. Personalized Medicine and Pharmacogenomics

a. Precision Medicine

Individualized Treatment : Tailoring medical treatment based on a person’s genetic makeup and environmental factors.

Cancer Therapy : Advancing targeted cancer therapies based on the genetic profile of tumors and patients.

Data Analytics : Implementing big data and AI for comprehensive analysis of genomic and clinical data to improve treatment outcomes.

Clinical Implementation : Integrating genetic testing into routine clinical practice for personalized healthcare.

Public Health and Policy : Addressing the challenges of integrating personalized medicine into public health policies and practices.

b. Pharmacogenomics

Drug Development : Optimizing drug development based on individual genetic variations to improve efficacy and reduce side effects.

Adverse Drug Reactions : Understanding genetic predispositions to adverse drug reactions and minimizing risks.

Dosing Optimization : Tailoring drug dosage based on an individual’s genetic profile for better treatment outcomes.

Economic Implications : Assessing the economic impact of pharmacogenomics on healthcare systems.

Education and Training : Educating healthcare professionals on integrating pharmacogenomic data into clinical practice.

3. Nanobiotechnology and Nanomedicine

a. Nanoparticles in Medicine

Drug Delivery Systems : Developing targeted drug delivery systems using nanoparticles for enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects.

Theranostics : Integrating diagnostics and therapeutics through nanomaterials for personalized medicine.

Imaging Techniques : Advancing imaging technologies using nanoparticles for better resolution and early disease detection.

Biocompatibility and Safety : Ensuring the safety and biocompatibility of nanoparticles used in medicine.

Regulatory Frameworks : Establishing regulations for the use of nanomaterials in medical applications.

b. Nanosensors and Diagnostics

Point-of-Care Diagnostics : Developing portable and rapid diagnostic tools for various diseases using nanotechnology.

Biosensors : Creating highly sensitive biosensors for detecting biomarkers and pathogens in healthcare and environmental monitoring.

Wearable Health Monitors : Integrating nanosensors into wearable devices for continuous health monitoring.

Challenges and Limitations : Addressing challenges in scalability, reproducibility, and cost-effectiveness of nanosensor technologies.

Future Applications : Exploring potential applications of nanosensors beyond healthcare, such as environmental monitoring and food safety.

4. Immunotherapy and Vaccine Development

a. Cancer Immunotherapy

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors : Enhancing the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors and understanding resistance mechanisms.

CAR-T Cell Therapy : Improving CAR-T cell therapy for a wider range of cancers and reducing associated side effects.

Combination Therapies : Investigating combination therapies for better outcomes in cancer treatment.

Biomarkers and Predictive Models : Identifying predictive biomarkers for immunotherapy response.

Long-Term Effects : Studying the long-term effects and immune-related adverse events of immunotherapies.

b. Vaccine Technology

mRNA Vaccines : Advancing mRNA vaccine technology for various infectious diseases and cancers.

Universal Vaccines : Developing universal vaccines targeting multiple strains of viruses and bacteria.

Vaccine Delivery Systems : Innovating vaccine delivery methods for improved stability and efficacy.

Vaccine Hesitancy : Addressing vaccine hesitancy through education, communication, and community engagement.

Pandemic Preparedness : Developing strategies for rapid vaccine development and deployment during global health crises.

5. Environmental Biotechnology and Sustainability

a. Bioremediation and Bioenergy

Biodegradation Techniques : Using biotechnology to enhance the degradation of pollutants and contaminants in the environment.

Biofuels : Developing sustainable biofuel production methods from renewable resources.

Microbial Fuel Cells : Harnessing microbial fuel cells for energy generation from organic waste.

Circular Economy : Integrating biotechnological solutions for a circular economy and waste management.

Ecosystem Restoration : Using biotechnology for the restoration of ecosystems affected by pollution and climate change.

b. Agricultural Biotechnology

Genetically Modified Crops : Advancing genetically modified crops for improved yields, pest resistance, and nutritional content.

Precision Agriculture : Implementing biotechnological tools for precise and sustainable farming practices.

Climate-Resilient Crops : Developing crops resilient to climate change-induced stresses.

Micro-biome Applications : Leveraging the plant micro-biome for enhanced crop health and productivity.

Consumer Acceptance and Regulation : Addressing consumer concerns and regulatory challenges related to genetically modified crops.

The field of biotechnology is a beacon of hope for addressing the challenges of our time, offering promising solutions for healthcare, sustainability, and more. As researchers explore these emerging topics, the potential for ground-breaking discoveries and transformative applications is immense.

I hope this article will help you to find the top research topics in biotechnology that promise to revolutionize healthcare, agriculture, environmental sustainability, and more.

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• Pharmacogenomics
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An Introduction to Biotechnology

Varsha gupta.

5 Institute of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur, UP India

Manjistha Sengupta

6 George Washington University, Washington DC, USA

Jaya Prakash

7 Orthopaedics Unit, Community Health Centre, Kanpur, UP India

Baishnab Charan Tripathy

8 School of Life sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India

Biotechnology is multidisciplinary field which has major impact on our lives. The technology is known since years which involves working with cells or cell-derived molecules for various applications. It has wide range of uses and is termed “technology of hope” which impact human health, well being of other life forms and our environment. It has revolutionized diagnostics and therapeutics; however, the major challenges to the human beings have been threats posed by deadly virus infections as avian flu, Chikungunya, Ebola, Influenza A, SARS, West Nile, and the latest Zika virus. Personalized medicine is increasingly recognized in healthcare system. In this chapter, the readers would understand the applications of biotechnology in human health care system. It has also impacted the environment which is loaded by toxic compounds due to human industrialization and urbanization. Bioremediation process utilizes use of natural or recombinant organisms for the cleanup of environmental toxic pollutants. The development of insect and pest resistant crops and herbicide tolerant crops has greatly reduced the environmental load of toxic insecticides and pesticides. The increase in crop productivity for solving world food and feed problem is addressed in agricultural biotechnology. The technological advancements have focused on development of alternate, renewable, and sustainable energy sources for production of biofuels. Marine biotechnology explores the products which can be obtained from aquatic organisms. As with every research area, the field of biotechnology is associated with many ethical issues and unseen fears. These are important in defining laws governing the feasibility and approval for the conduct of particular research.

Introduction

The term “ biotechnology” was coined by a Hungarian engineer Karl Ereky, in 1919, to refer to the science and methods that permit products to be produced from raw materials with the aid of living organisms. Biotechnology is a diverse field which involves either working with living cells or using molecules derived from them for applications oriented toward human welfare using varied types of tools and technologies. It is an amalgamation of biological science with engineering whereby living organisms or cells or parts are used for production of products and services. The main subfields of biotechnology are medical (red) biotechnology, agricultural (green) biotechnology, industrial (white) biotechnology, marine (blue) biotechnology, food biotechnology, and environmental biotechnology (Fig. 1.1 .). In this chapter the readers will understand the potential applications of biotechnology in several fields like production of medicines; diagnostics; therapeutics like monoclonal antibodies, stem cells, and gene therapy; agricultural biotechnology; pollution control ( bioremediation); industrial and marine biotechnology; and biomaterials, as well as the ethical and safety issues associated with some of the products.

Major applications of biotechnology in different areas and some of their important products

The biotechnology came into being centuries ago when plants and animals began to be selectively bred and microorganisms were used to make beer, wine, cheese, and bread. However, the field gradually evolved, and presently it is the use or manipulation of living organisms to produce beneficiary substances which may have medical, agricultural, and/or industrial utilization. Conventional biotechnology is referred to as the technique that makes use of living organism for specific purposes as bread/cheese making, whereas modern biotechnology deals with the technique that makes use of cellular molecules like DNA, monoclonal antibodies, biologics, etc. Before we go into technical advances of DNA and thus recombinant DNA technology, let us have the basic understanding about DNA and its function.

The foundation of biotechnology was laid down after the discovery of structure of DNA in the early 1950s. The hereditary material is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which contains all the information that dictates each and every step of an individual’s life. The DNA consists of deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and four nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine). The base and sugar collectively form nucleoside, while base, sugar, and phosphate form nucleotide (Fig. 1.2 ). These are arranged in particular orientation on DNA called order or sequence and contain information to express them in the form of protein. DNA has double helical structure, with two strands being complimentary and antiparallel to each other, in which A on one strand base pairs with T and G base pairs with C with two and three bonds, respectively. DNA is the long but compact molecule which is nicely packaged in our nucleus. The DNA is capable of making more copies like itself with the information present in it, as order or sequence of bases. This is called DNA replication. When the cell divides into two, the DNA also replicates and divides equally into two. The process of DNA replication is shown in Fig. 1.3 , highlighting important steps.

The double helical structure of DNA where both strands are running in opposite direction. Elongation of the chain occurs due to formation of phosphodiester bond between phosphate at 5′ and hydroxyl group of sugar at 3′ of the adjacent sugar of the nucleotide in 5–3′ direction. The sugar is attached to the base. Bases are of four kinds: adenine ( A ), guanine ( G ) (purines), thymine ( T ), and cytosine ( C ) (pyrimidines). Adenine base pairs with two hydrogen bonds with thymine on the opposite antiparallel strand and guanine base pairs with three hydrogen bonds with cytosine present on the opposite antiparallel strand

The process of DNA replication. The DNA is densely packed and packaged in the chromosomes. The process requires the action of several factors and enzymes. DNA helicase unwinds the double helix. Topoisomerase relaxes DNA from its super coiled nature. Single-strand binding proteins bind to single-stranded open DNA and prevent its reannealing and maintains strand separation. DNA polymerase is an enzyme which builds a new complimentary DNA strand and has proofreading activity. DNA clamp is a protein which prevents dissociation of DNA polymerase. Primase provides a short RNA sequence for DNA polymerase to begin synthesis. DNA ligase reanneals and joins the Okazaki fragments of the lagging strand. DNA duplication follows semiconservative replication, where each strand serves as template which leads to the production of two complimentary strands. In the newly formed DNA, one strand is old and the other one is new (semiconservative replication). DNA polymerase can extend existing short DNA or RNA strand which is paired to template strand and is called primer. Primer is required as DNA polymerase cannot start the synthesis directly. DNA polymerase is capable of proofreading, that is, correction of wrongly incorporated nucleotide. One strand is replicated continuously with single primer, and it is called as leading strand. Other strand is discontinuous and requires the addition of several primers. The extension is done in the form of short fragments called as Okazaki fragments. The gaps are sealed by DNA ligase. Replication always occurs in 5′–3′ direction

DNA contains whole information for the working of the cell. The part of the DNA which has information to dictate the biosynthesis of a polypeptide is called a “gene.” The arrangement or order of nucleotides determines the kind of proteins which we produce. Each gene is responsible for coding a functional polypeptide. The genes have the information to make a complimentary copy of mRNA. The information of DNA which makes RNA in turn helps cells to incorporate amino acids according to arrangement of letters for making many kinds of proteins. These letters are transcribed into mRNA in the form of triplet codon, where each codon specifies one particular amino acid. The polypeptide is thus made by adding respective amino acids according to the instructions present on RNA. Therefore, the arrangement of four bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine) dictates the information to add any of the 20 amino acids to make all the proteins in all the living organisms. Few genes need to be expressed continuously, as their products are required by the cell, and these are known as “constitutive genes.” They are responsible for basic housekeeping functions of the cells. However, depending upon the physiological demand and cell’s requirement at a particular time, some genes are active and some are inactive, that is, they do not code for any protein. The information contained in the DNA is used to make mRNA in the process of “ transcription” (factors shown in Table 1.1 ). The information of mRNA is used in the process of “ translation” for production of protein. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and translation in the cytoplasm of the cell. In translation several initiation factors help in the assembly of mRNA with 40S ribosome and prevent binding of both ribosomal subunits; they also associate with cap and poly(A) tail. Several elongation factors play an important role in chain elongation. Though each cell of the body has the same genetic makeup, but each is specialized to perform unique functions, the activation and expression of genes is different in each cell. Thus, one type of cells can express some of its genes at one time and may not express the same genes some other time. This is called “temporal regulation” of the gene. In the body different cells express different genes and thus different proteins. For example, liver cell and lymphocyte, would express different genes. This is known as spatial regulation of the gene. Therefore, in the cells of the body, the activation of genes is under spatial regulation (cells present at different locations and different organs produce different proteins) and temporal regulation (same cells produce different proteins at different times). The proteins are formed by the information contained in the DNA and perform a variety of cellular functions. The proteins may be structural (responsible for cell shape and size), or they may be functional like enzymes, signaling intermediates, regulatory proteins, and defense system proteins. However, any kind of genetic defect results in defective protein or alters protein folding which can compromise the functioning of the body and is responsible for the diseases. Figure 1.4 shows the outline of the process of transcription and translation with important steps.

Factors involved in transcription process

It shows the process of transcription and translation. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and requires the usage of three polymerase enzymes. RNApol I for rRNA, pol II for mRNA, and pol III for both rRNA and tRNA. RNApol II initiates the process by associating itself with seven transcription factors, TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIID, TFIIE, TFIIH, and TFIIJ. After the synthesis, preRNA transcript undergoes processing to form mRNA by removal of introns by splicing and polyadenylation and capping. Protein synthesis is initiated by formation of ribosome and initiator tRNA complex to initiation codon (AUG) of mRNA and involves 11 factors. Chain elongation occurs after sequential addition of amino acids by formation of peptide bonds. Then polypeptide can fold or conjugate itself to other biomolecules and may undergo posttranslational modifications as glycosylation or phosphorylation to perform its biological functions

The biotechnological tools are employed toward modification of the gene for gain of function or loss of function of the protein. The technique of removing, adding, or modifying genes in the genome or chromosomes of an organism to bring about the changes in the protein information is called genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology (Fig. 1.5 ). DNA recombination made possible the sequencing of the human genome and laid the foundation for the nascent fields of bioinformatics, nanomedicine, and individualized therapy. Multicellular organisms like cows, goats, sheep, rats, corn, potato, and tobacco plants have been genetically engineered to produce substances medically useful to humans. Genetic engineering has revolutionized medicine, enabling mass production of safe, pure, more effective versions of biochemicals that the human body produces naturally [ 20 – 22 ].

The process of recombinant DNA technology. The gene of interest from human nucleus is isolated and cloned in a plasmid vector. The gene is ligated with the help of DNA ligase. The vector is transformed into a bacterial host. After appropriate selections, the gene is amplified when bacteria multiply or the gene can be sequenced or the gene can be expressed to produce protein

The technological advancements have resulted in (1) many biopharmaceuticals and vaccines, (2) new and specific ways to diagnose, (3) increasing the productivity and introduction of quality traits in agricultural crops, (4) the ways to tackle the pollutants efficiently for sustainable environmental practices, (5) helped the forensic experts by DNA fingerprinting and profiling, (6) fermentation technology for production of industrially important products. The list is very long with tremendous advancements and products which have boosted the economy of biotechnology sector worldwide [ 16 ]. The biotechnology industry and the products are regulated by various government organizations such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA).

Medical Biotechnology

This fieldof biotechnology has many applications and is involved in production of recombinant pharmaceuticals, tissue engineering products, regenerative medicines such as stem cell and gene therapy, and many more biotechnology products for better human life (Fig. 1.6 ). Biotechnological tools produce purified bio-therapeutic agents on industrial scales. These include both novel agents and agents formerly available only in small quantities. Crude vaccines were used in antiquity in China, India, and Persia. For example, vaccination with scabs that contained the smallpox virus was a practice in the East for centuries. In 1798 English country doctor Edward Jenner demonstrated that inoculation with pus from sores due to infection by a related cowpox virus could prevent smallpox far less dangerously. It marked the beginning of vaccination. Humans have been benefited incalculably from the implementation of vaccination programs.

Various applications of medical biotechnology

Tremendous progress has been made since the early recombinant DNA technology (RDT) experiments from which the lively—and highly profitable—biotechnology industry emerged. RDT has fomented multiple revolutions in medicine. Safe and improved drugs, accelerated drug discovery, better diagnostic and quick methods for detecting an infection either active or latent, development of new and safe vaccines, and completely novel classes of therapeutics and other medical applications are added feathers in its cap. The technology has revolutionized understanding of diseases as diverse as cystic fibrosis and cancer. Pharmaceutical biotechnology being one of the important sectors involves using animals or hybrids of tumor cells or leukocytes or cells ( prokaryotic, mammalian) to produce safer, more efficacious, and cost-effective versions of conventionally produced biopharmaceuticals. The launch of the new biopharmaceutical or drug requires screening and development. Mice were widely used as research animals for screening. However, in the wake of animal protection, animal cell culture offers accurate and inexpensive source of cells for drug screening and efficacy testing. Pharmaceutical biotechnology’s greatest potential lies in gene therapy and stem cell-based therapy. The underlying cause of defect of many inherited diseases is now located and characterized. Gene therapy is the insertion of the functional gene in place of defective gene into cells to prevent, control, or cure disease. It also involves addition of genes for pro-drug or cytokines to eliminate or suppress the growth of the tumors in cancer treatment.

But the progress so far is viewed by many scientists as only a beginning. They believe that, in the not-so-distant future, the refinement of “targeted therapies” should dramatically improve drug safety and efficacy. The development of predictive technologies may lead to a new era in disease prevention, particularly in some of the world’s rapidly developing economies. Yet the risks cannot be ignored as new developments and discoveries pose new questions, particularly in areas as gene therapy, the ethics of stem cell research, and the misuse of genomic information.

Many bio-therapeutic agents in clinical use are biotech pharmaceuticals. Insulin was among the earliest recombinant drugs. Canadian physiologists Frederick Banting and Charles Best discovered and isolated insulin in 1921. In that time many patients diagnosed with diabetes died within a few years. In the mid-1960s, several groups reported synthesizing the hormone.

The first “bioengineered” drug, a recombinant form of human insulin, was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1982. Until then, insulin was obtained from a limited supply of beef or pork pancreas tissue. By inserting the human gene for insulininto bacteria, scientists were able to achieve lifesaving insulinproduction in large quantities. In the near future, patients with diabetes may be able to inhale insulin, eliminating the need for injections. Inhaled insulinproducts like Exubera® were approved by the USFDA; however, it was pulled out and other products like Technosphere® insulin (Afrezza®) are under investigation. They may provide relief from prandial insulin. Afrezza consists of a pre-meal insulinpowder loaded into a cartridge for oral inhalation.

Technosphere technology: The technology allows administration of therapeutics through pulmonary route which otherwise were required to be given as injections. These formulations have broad spectrum of physicochemical characteristics and are prepared with a diverse assortment of drugs with protein or small molecule which may be hydrobhobic or hydrophilic or anionic or cationic in nature. The technology can have its applicability not only through pulmonary route but also for other routes of administration including local lung delivery.

The first recombinant vaccine, approved in 1986, was produced by cloning a gene fragment from the hepatitis B virus into yeast (Merck’s Recombivax HB). The fragment was translated by the yeast’s genetic machinery into an antigenic protein. This was present on the surface of the virus that stimulates the immune response. This avoided the need to extract the antigen from the serum of people infected with hepatitis B.

The Food and Drug administration (FDA) approved more biotech drugs in 1997 than in the previous several years combined. The FDA has approved many recombinant drugs for human health conditions. These include AIDS, anemia, cancers (Kaposi’s sarcoma, leukemia, and colorectal, kidney, and ovarian cancers), certain circulatory problems, certain hereditary disorders (cystic fibrosis, familial hypercholesterolemia, Gaucher’s disease, hemophilia A, severe combined immunodeficiency disease, and Turner’s syndrome), diabetic foot ulcers, diphtheria, genital warts, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, human growth hormone deficiency, and multiple sclerosis. Today there are more than 100 recombinant drugs and vaccines. Because of their efficiency, safety, and relatively low cost, molecular diagnostic tests and recombinant vaccines may have particular relevance for combating long-standing diseases of developing countries, including leishmaniasis (a tropical infection causing fever and lesions) and malaria.

Stem cell research is very promising and holds tremendous potential to treat neurodegenerative disorders, spinal cord injuries, and other conditions related to organ or tissue loss.

DNA analysis is another powerful technique which compares DNA pattern [ 14 ] after performing RFLP and probing it by minisatellite repeat sequence between two or more individuals. Its modification, DNA profiling (process of matching the DNA profiles for STS markers in two or more individuals; see chapter 18), which utilizes multilocus PCR analysis of DNA of suspect and victims, is very powerful and is useful in criminal investigation, paternity disputes, and so many other legal issues. The analysis is very useful in criminal investigations and involves evaluation of DNA from samples of the hair, body fluids, or skin at a crime scene and comparison of these with those obtained from the suspects.

Improved Diagnostic and Therapeutic Capabilities

The sequencing of the human genome in 2003, has given scientists an incredibly rich “parts list” with which to better understand why and how disease happens. It has given added power to gene expression profiling, a method of monitoring expression of thousands of genes simultaneously on a glass slide called a microarray. This technique can predict the aggressiveness of cancer.

The development of monoclonal antibodies in 1975 led to a medical revolution. The body normally produces a wide range of antibodies—the immune system proteins—that defend our body and eliminate microorganisms and other foreign invaders. By fusing antibody-producing cells with myeloma cells, scientists were able to generate antibodies that would, like “magic bullets,” bind with specific targets including unique markers, called antigenic determinants ( epitopes), on the surfaces of inflammatory cells. When tagged with radioisotopes or other contrast agents, monoclonal antibodies can help in detecting the location of cancer cells, thereby improving the precision of surgery and radiation therapy and showing—within 48 h—whether a tumor is responding to chemotherapy.

The polymerase chain reaction, a method for amplifying tiny bits of DNA first described in the mid-1980s, has been crucial to the development of blood tests that can quickly determine exposure to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Genetic testing currently is available for many rare monogenic disorders, such as hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, etc.

Another rapidly developing field is proteomics, which deals with analysis and identification of proteins. The analysis is done by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis of the sample and then performing mass spectrometric analysis for each individual protein. The technique may be helpful in detecting the disease-associated protein in the biological sample. They may indicate early signs of disease, even before symptoms appear. One such marker is C-reactive protein, an indicator of inflammatory changes in blood vessel walls that presage atherosclerosis.

Nanomedicine is a rapidly moving field. Scientists are developing a wide variety of nanoparticles and nanodevices, scarcely a millionth of an inch in diameter, to improve detection of cancer, boost immune responses, repair damaged tissue, and thwart atherosclerosis. The FDA has approved a paclitaxel albumin-stabilized nanoparticle formulation (Abraxane® for injectable suspension, made by Abraxis BioScience) for the treatment of metastatic adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. Nanoparticles are being explored in heart patients in the USA as a way to keep their heart arteries open following angioplasty.

Therapeutic proteins are those, which can replace the patients naturally occurring proteins, when levels of the natural proteins are low or absent due to the disease. High-throughput screening, conducted with sophisticated robotic and computer technologies, enables scientists to test tens of thousands of small molecules in a single day for their ability to bind to or modulate the activity of a “target,” such as a receptor for a neurotransmitter in the brain. The goal is to improve the speed and accuracy of therapeutic protein or potential drug discovery while lowering the cost and improving the safety of pharmaceuticals that make it to market.

Many of the molecules utilized for detection also have therapeutic potential too, for example, monoclonal antibodies. The monoclonal antibodies are approved for the treatment of many diseases as cancer, multiple sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis. They are currently being tested in patients as potential treatments for asthma, Crohn’s disease, and muscular dystrophy. As the antibodies may be efficiently targeted against a particular cell surface marker, thus they are used to deliver a lethal dose of toxic drug to cancer cells, avoiding collateral damage to nearby normal tissues.

Agricultural Biotechnology

The manhas made tremendous progress in crop improvement in terms of yield; still the ultimate production of crop is less than their full genetic potential. There are many reasons like environmental stresses (weather condition as rain, cold, frost), diseases, pests, and many other factors which reduce the ultimate desired yield affecting crop productivity. The efforts are going on to design crops which may be grown irrespective of their season or can be grown in frost or drought conditions for maximum utilization of land, which would ultimately affect crop productivity [ 24 ]. Agricultural biotechnology aims to introduce sustainable agriculturalpractices with best yield potential and minimal adverse effects on environment (Fig. 1.7 ). For example, combating pests was a major challenge. Thus, the gene from bacterium , the Bt gene, that functions as insect-resistant gene when inserted into crop plants like cotton, corn, and soybean helps prevent the invasion of pathogen, and the tool is called . This management is helpful in reducing usage of potentially dangerous pesticides on the crop. Not only the minimal or low usage of pesticides is beneficial for the crop but also the load of the polluting pesticides on environment is greatly reduced [ 24 ].

Various applications of agricultural biotechnology

Resistance to Infectious Agents Through Genetic Engineering

• The gene comes from the soil bacterium .
• The gene produces crystal proteins called Cry proteins. More than 100 different variants of the Bt toxins have been identified which have different specificity to target insect lepidoptera. For eg., CryIa for butterflies and CRYIII for beetles.
• These Cry proteins are toxic to larvae of insects like tobacco budworm, armyworm, and beetles.
• The Cry proteins exist as an inactive protoxins.
• These are converted into active toxin in alkaline pH of the gut upon solubilization when ingested by the insect.
• After the toxin is activated, it binds to the surface of epithelial cells of midgut and creates pores causing swelling and lysis of cells leading to the death of the insect (larva).
• The genes (cry genes) encoding this protein are isolated from the bacterium and incorporated into several crop plants like cotton, tomato, corn, rice, and soybean.

The proteins encoded by the following cry genes control the pest given against them:

• Cry I Ac and cry II Ab control cotton bollworms.
• Cry I Ab controls corn borer.
• Cry III Ab controls Colorado potato beetle.
• Cry III Bb controls corn rootworm.
• A nematode infects tobacco plants and reduces their yield.
• The specific genes (in the form of cDNA) from the parasite are introduced into the plant using -mediated transformation.
• The genes are introduced in such a way that both sense/coding RNA and antisense RNA (complimentary to the sense/coding RNA) are produced.
• Since these two RNAs are complementary, they form a double-stranded RNA (ds RNA).
• This neutralizes the specific RNA of the nematode, by a process called RNA – interference.
• As a result, the parasite cannot multiply in the transgenic host, and the transgenic plantis protected from the pest.

These resistant crops result in reduced application of pesticides. The yield is high without the pathogen infestations and insecticides. This also helps to reduce load of these toxic chemicals in the environment.

The transformation techniques and their applications are being utilized to develop rice, cassava, and tomato, free of viral diseases by “International Laboratory for Tropical Agricultural Biotechnology” (ILTAB). ILTAB in 1995 reported the first transfer of a resistance gene from a wild-type species of rice to a susceptible cultivated rice variety. The transferred gene expressed and imparted resistance to crop-destroying bacterium Xanthomonas oryzae . The resistant gene was transferred into susceptible rice varieties that are cultivated on more than 24 million hectares around the world [ 6 ].

The recombinant DNA technology reduces the time between the identification of a particular gene to its application for betterment of crops by skipping the labor-intensive and time-consuming conventional breeding [ 3 ]. For example, the alteration of known gene in plant for the improvement of yield or tolerance to adverse environmental conditions or resistance to insect in one generation and its inheritance to further generations. Plant cell and tissue culture techniques are one of the applications where virus-free plants can be grown and multiplied irrespective of their season on large scale (micropropogation), raising haploids, or embryo rescue. It also opens an opportunity to cross two manipulated varieties or two incompatible varieties (protoplast culture) for obtaining best variety for cultivation.

With the help of technology, new, improved, and safe agricultural products may emerge which would be helpful for maintaining contamination-free environment. Biotechnology has the potential to produce:

• High crop yields [ 4 ]
• Crops are engineered to have desirable nutrients and better taste (e.g., tomatoes and other edible crops with increased levels of vitamin C, vitamin E, and/or beta-carotene protect against the risk of some prevalent chronic diseases and rice with increased iron levels protects against anemia)
• Insect- and disease-resistant plants
• Genetic modification avoids nonselective changes
• Longer shelf life of fruits and vegetables

The potential of biotechnology may contribute to increasing agricultural, food, and feed production, protecting the environment, mitigating pollution, sustaining agricultural practices, and improving human and animal health. Some agricultural crops as corn and marine organisms can be potential alternative for biofuel production. The by-products of the process may be processed to produce other chemical feedstocks for various products. It is estimated that the world’s chemical and fuel demand could be supplied by such renewable resources in the first half of the next century [ 5 ].

Food Biotechnology

Food biotechnology is an emerging field, which can increase the production of food, improving its nutritional content and improving the taste of the food. The food is safe and beneficial as it needs fewer pesticides and insecticides. The technology aims to produce foods which have more flavors, contain more vitamins and minerals, and absorb less fat when cooked. Food biotechnology may remove allergens and toxic components from foods, for their better utility [ 6 , 7 ].

Environmental Biotechnology

Environmental biotechnology grossly deals with maintenanceof environment, which is pollution-free, the water is contamination-free, and the atmosphere is free of toxic gases. Thus, it deals with waste treatment, monitoring of environmental changes, and pollution prevention. Bioremediation in which utilization of higher living organisms (plants: phytoremediation) or certain microbial species for decontamination or conversion of harmful products is done is the main application of environmental biotechnology. The enzyme bioreactors are also being developed which would pretreat some industrial and food waste components and allow their removal through the sewage system rather than through solid waste disposal mechanisms. The production of biofuel from waste can solve the fuel crisis (biogas). Microbes may be engineered to produce enzymes required for conversion of plant and vegetable materials into building blocks for biodegradable plastics. In some cases, the by-products of the pollution-fighting microorganisms are themselves useful. For example, methane can be derived from a form of bacteria that degrades sulfur liquor, a waste product of paper manufacturing. This methane thus obtained is used as a fuel or in other industrial processes. Insect- and pest-resistant crops have reduced the use and environmental load of insecticides and pesticides. Insect-protected crops allow for less potential exposure of farmers and groundwater to chemical residues while providing farmers with season-long control.

Industrial Biotechnology

The utilizationof biotechnological tools (bioprocessing) for the manufacturing of biotechnology-derived products (fuels, plastics, enzymes, chemicals, and many more compounds) on industrial scale is industrial biotechnology. The aim is to develop newer industrial manufacturing processes and products, which are economical and better than preexisting ones with minimal environmental impact. In industrial biotechnology, (1) microorganisms are being explored for producing material goods like fermentation products as cheese; (2) biorefineries where oils, sugars, and biomass may be converted into biofuels, bioplastics, and biopolymers; (3) and value-added chemicals from biomass. The utilization of modern techniques can improve the efficiency and reduces the environmental impacts of industrial processes like textile, paper, pulp, and chemical manufacturing. For example, development and usage of biocatalysts, such as enzymes, to synthesize chemicals and development of antibiotics and better tasting liquors and their usage in food industry have provided safe and effective processing for sustainable productions. Biotechnological tools in the textile industry are utilized for the finishing of fabrics and garments. Biotechnology also produces spider silk and biotech-derived cotton that is warmer and stronger and has improved dye uptake and retention, enhanced absorbency, and wrinkle and shrink resistance.

Biofuels may be derived from photosynthetic organisms, which capture solar energy, transform it in other products like carbohydrates and oils, and store them. Different plants can be used for fuel production:

• Bioethanol can be obtained from sugar (as sugarcane or sugar beet) or starch (like corn or maize). These are fermented to produce ethanol, a liquid fuel commonly used for transportation.
• Biodiesel can be obtained from natural oils from plants like oil palm, soybean, or algae. They can be burned directly in a diesel engine or a furnace, or blended with petroleum, to produce fuels such as biodiesel.
• Wood and its by-products can be converted into liquid biofuels, such as methanol or ethanol, or into wood gas. Wood can also be burned as solid fuel, like the irewood.

In these kinds of biological reaction, there are many renewable chemicals of economic importance coproduced as side streams of bioenergy and biofuels as levulinic acid, itaconic acid, and sorbitol. These have tremendous economic potential and their fruitful usage would depend upon the collaboration for research and development between the government and the private sector.

Enzyme Production

The enzymeshave big commercial and industrial significance. They have wide applications in food industry, leather industry, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, detergents, and research. In detergents the alkaline protease, subtilisin (from Bacillus subtilis ), was used by Novo Industries, Denmark. The production of enzymes is an important industrial application with world market of approximately 5 billion dollars. The enzymes can be obtained from animals, plants, or microorganisms. The production from microorganisms is preferred as they are easy to maintain in culture with simple media requirements and easy scale-up. The important enzymes for the industrial applications are in food industry, human application, and research. A few animal enzymes are also important as a group of proteolytic enzymes, for example, plasminogen activators, which act on inactive plasminogen and activate it to plasmin, which destroys fibrin network of blood clot. Some of the plasminogen activators are urokinase and tissue plasminogen activators (t-PA). Urokinase (from urine) is difficult to obtain in ample quantity; thus, t-PA is obtained from cells grown in culture medium. Streptokinase (bacterial enzyme) is also a plasminogen activator but is nonspecific and immunogenic.

Enzyme engineering is also being tried where modifications of specific amino acid residue are done for improving the enzyme properties. One of the enzymes chymosin (rennin) coagulates milk for cheese manufacturing.

The enzymes can be produced by culturing cells, growing them with appropriate substrates in culture conditions. After optimum time the enzymes may be obtained by cell disruption (enzymatic/freeze–thaw/osmotic shock) followed by preparative steps (centrifugation, filtration), purification, and analysis. The product is then packaged and ultimately launched in the market.

After their production, they can be immobilized on large range of materials (agar, cellulose, porous glass, or porous alumina) for subsequent reuse. Some of the important industrial enzymes are α-amylase (used for starch hydrolysis), amyloglucosidase (dextrin hydrolysis), β-galactosidase (lactose hydrolysis), aminoacylase (hydrolysis of acylated L-amino acids), glucose oxidase (oxidation of glucose), and luciferase (bioluminescence). Some of the medically important enzymes are urokinase and t-PA for blood clot removal and L-asparaginase for removal of L-asparagine essential for tumor growth and thus used for cancer chemotherapy in leukemia.

Exploring Algae for Production of Biofuels

The energyrequirement of present population is increasing and gradually fossil fuels are rapidly depleting. Thus, renewable energy sources like solar energy and wind-, hydro-, and biomass-based energy are being explored worldwide. One of the feedstocks may be microalgae, which are fast-growing, photosynthetic organisms requiring carbon dioxide, some nutrients, and water for its growth. They produce large amount of lipids and carbohydrates, which can be processed into different biofuels and commercially important coproducts. The production of biofuels using algal biomass is advantageous as they (1) can grow throughout the year and thus their productivity is higher than other oil seed crops, (2) have high tolerance to high carbon dioxide content, (3) utilize less water, (4) do not require herbicides or pesticides with high growth potential (waste water can be utilized for algal cultivation), (5) can sustain harsh atmospheric conditions, and (6) do not interfere with productivity of conventional crops as they do not require agricultural land. The production of various biofuels from algae is schematically represented in Fig. 1.8 .

Different biofuel productions by using microalgae. The algae use sunlight, CO2, water, and some nutrients

Algae can serve as potential source for biofuel production; however, biomass production is low. The production has certain limitations, as cultivation cost is high with requirement of high energy [ 1 ].

Marine or Aquatic Biotechnology

Marine or aquatic biotechnology also referred to as “blue biotechnology” deals with exploring and utilizing the marine resources of the world. Aquatic or marine life has been intriguing and a source of livelihood for many since years. As major part of earth is acquired by water, thus nearly 75–80 % types of life forms exist in oceans and aquatic systems. It studies the wide diversity found in the structure and physiology of marine organisms. They are unique in their own ways and lack their equivalent on land. These organisms have been explored and utilized for numerous applications as searching new treatment for cancer or exploring other marine resources, because of which the field is gradually gaining momentum and economic opportunities [ 19 ]. The global economic benefits are estimated to be very high. The field aims to:

• Fulfill the increasing food supply needs
• Identify and isolate important compounds which may benefit health of humans
• Manipulate the existing traits in sea animals for their improvement
• Protect marine ecosystem and gain knowledge about the geochemical processes occurring in oceans

Some of the major applications are discussed:

• Aquaculture: Aquaculture refers to the growth of aquatic organisms in culture condition for commercial purposes. These animals may be shellfish, finfish, and many others. Mariculture refers to the cultivation of marine animals. Their main applications are in food, food ingredients, pharmaceuticals, and fuels, the products are in high demand, and various industries are in aquaculture business, for example, crawfish farming (Louisiana), catfish industry (Alabama and Mississippi Delta), and trout farming (Idaho and West Virginia).
• Transgenic species of salmon with growth hormone gene has accelerated growth of salmons.
• Molt-inhibiting (MIH) from blue crabs leads to soft-shelled crab.
• : Anovel protein antifreeze protein (AFP) was identified. AFPs were isolated from Northern cod (bottom-dwelling fish) living at the Eastern Canada coast and teleosts living in extremely cold weather of Antarctica. AFPs have been isolated from Osmerus mordax (smelt), Clupea harengus (herring), Pleuronectes americanus (winter flounder), and many others. Due to antifreeze properties (lowering the minimal freezing temperature by 2–3 °C), the gene has potential for raising plants which are cold tolerant (e.g., tomatoes).
• Medicinal applications : For osteoporosis, salmon calcitonin (calcitonin is thyroid hormone promoting calcium uptake and bone calcification) with 20 times higher bioactivity is available as injection and nasal spray.
• Hydroxyapatite ( HA ): Obtained from coral reefs and is an important component of bone and cartilage matrix. Its implants are prepared by Interpore Internationals which may be used for filling gaps in fractured bones.

Many anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticancerous compounds have been identified from sea organisms which can have tremendous potential for human health.

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is the most toxic poison (10,000 times more lethal than cyanide) produced by Japanese pufferfish or blowfish ( Fugu rubripes ). TTX is being used to study and understand its effect on sodium channels which can help guide the development of drugs with anesthetic and analgesic properties.

Other Products

• Taq polymerase from Thermus aquaticus which is used in PCR reactions and obtained from hot spring Archaea.
• Collagenase (protease) obtained from Vibrio is used in tissue engineering and culturing.

Transgenic Animals and Plants

In the early1980s, inserting DNA from humans into mice and other animals became possible. The animals and plants which have foreign gene in each of their cells are referred to as transgenic organisms and the inserted gene as transgene. Expression of human genes in these transgenic animals can be useful in studies, as models for the development of diabetes, atherosclerosis, and Alzheimer’s disease. They also can generate large quantities of potentially therapeutic human proteins. Transgenic plants also offer many economic, safe, and practical solutions for production of variety of biopharmaceuticals. The plants have been engineered to produce many blood products (human serum albumin, cytokines), human growth hormone, recombinant antibodies, and subunitvaccines.

The usage of transgenic plants for the production of recombinant pharmaceuticals might open new avenues in biotechnology. As plants can be grown inexpensively with minimal complicated requirements, thus they may have tremendous therapeutic potential. The plants have been engineered to produce more nutrients or better shelf life. The transgenic plants have been created which have genes for insect resistance (Bt cotton, soybean, corn). Now billion acres of land is used for cultivation of genetically engineered crops of cotton, corn, and soybean as they have higher yield and are pest resistant. However, due to social, ethical, and biosafety issues, they have received acceptance as well as rejections at many places and health and environment-related concerns in many parts of the world [ 8 ].

Response to Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotics areone of the broadly used therapeutic molecules produced by certain classes of microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) which can be used in diverse clinical situations to eliminate bacteria, improve symptoms, and prevent number of infections. Antibiotics have various other applications apart from clinical aspects. They can be used for the treatment of tumors and treatment of meat, in cattles and livestocks, in basic biotechnological work. However, their effectiveness is a matter of concern as bacteria which are continuously exposed to certain antibiotics might become resistant to it due to accumulation of mutations. These days antibiotic-resistant bacteria have increased and some of them have developed multiple drug resistance. Thus, it has become very difficult to initiate therapy in diseases like tuberculosis and leprosy. Biotechnology is solving the urgent and growing problem of antibiotic resistance. With the help of bioinformatics—powerful computer programs capable of analyzing billions of bits of genomicsequence data—scientists are cracking the genetic codes of bacteria and discovering “weak spots” vulnerable to attack by compounds identified via high-throughput screening. This kind of work led in 2000 to the approval of Zyvox (linezolid), an antibiotic to reach the market in 35 years.

Lytic bacteriophage viruses that infect and kill bacteria may be another way to counter resistance. First used to treat infection in the 1920s, “phage therapy” was largely eclipsed by the development of antibiotics. However, researchers in the former Soviet Republic of Georgia reported that a biodegradable polymer impregnated with bacteriophages and the antibiotic Cipro successfully healed wounds infected with a drug-resistant bacterium.

After exposure of strontium-90, three Georgian lumberjacks from village Lia had systemic effects, and two of them developed severe local radiation injuries which subsequently became infected with Staphylococcus aureus . Upon hospitalization, the patients were treated with various medications, including antibiotics and topical ointments; however, wound healing was only moderately successful, and their S. aureus infection could not be eliminated. Approximately 1 month after hospitalization, treatment with PhagoBioDerm (a wound-healing preparation consisting of a biodegradable polymer impregnated with ciprofloxacin and bacteriophages) was initiated. Purulent drainage stopped within 2–7 days. Clinical improvement was associated with rapid (7 days) elimination of the etiologic agent, and a strain of S. aureus responsible for infection was resistant to many antibiotics (including ciprofloxacin) but was susceptible to the bacteriophages contained in the PhagoBioDerm preparation [ 11 ].

The Challenges for the Technology

Gene therapy.

Some biotechapproaches to better health have proven to be more challenging than others. An example is gene transfer, where the defective gene is replaced with a normally functioning one. The normal gene is delivered to target tissues in most cases by virus that is genetically altered to render it harmless. The first ex vivo gene transfer experiment, conducted in 1990 at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), on Ashanti DeSilva who was suffering from severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) helped boost her immune response and successfully corrected an enzyme deficiency. However, treatment was required every few months. However, 9 years later, a major setback occurred in gene therapy trial after the death of 18-year-old Jesse Gelsinger suffering from ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC) deficiency due to intense inflammatory responses followed by gene therapy treatment. There were some positive experiences and some setbacks from gene therapy trials leading to stricter safety requirements in clinical trials.

Designer Babies

The fancyterm designer baby was invented by media. Many people in society prefer embryos with better traits, intellect, and intelligence. They want to select embryo post germline engineering. This technique is still in infancy but is capable of creating lot of differences in the society thus requires appropriate guidelines.

Genetically Modified Food

Genetically modifiedcrops harboring genes for insect resistance were grown on billion of acres of land. These crops became very popular due to high yield and pest resistance. However, some of the pests gradually developed resistance for a few of these transgenic crops posing resistant pest threat. The other technologies as “traitor” and “terminator” technologies pose serious risk on crop biodiversity and would impart negative characters in the crop (they were not released due to public outcry).

Pharmacogenomics

Scientists do not believe they will find a single gene for every disease. As a result, they are studyingrelationships between genes and probing populations for variations in the genetic code, called single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs, that may increase one’s risk for a particular disease or determine one’s response to a given medication. This powerful ability to assign risk and response to genetic variations is fueling the movement toward “individualized medicine.” The goal is prevention, earlier diagnosis, and more effective therapy by prescribing interventions that match patients’ particular genetic characteristics.

Tissue Engineering

Tissue engineering is one of the emerging fields with tremendous potential to supply replacement tissue and organ option for many diseases. Lot is achieved, lot more need to be achieved.

Ethical Issues

The pursuit of cutting-edge research “brings us closer to our ultimate goal of eliminating disability and disease through the best care which modern medicine can provide.” Understanding of the genetics of heart disease and cancer will aid the development of screening tools and interventions that can help prevent the spread of these devastating disorders into the world’s most rapidly developing economies.

Biotechnology is a neutral tool; nevertheless, its capabilities raise troubling ethical questions. Should prospective parents be allowed to “engineer” the physical characteristics of their embryos? Should science tinker with the human germ line, or would that alter in profound and irrevocable ways what it means to be human?

More immediately, shouldn’t researchers apply biotechnology—if they can—to eliminate health disparities among racial and ethnic groups? While genetic variation is one of many factors contributing to differences in health outcome (others include environment, socioeconomic status, health-care access, stress, and behavior), the growing ability to mine DNA databases from diverse populations should enable scientists to parse the roles these and other factors play.

Biotechnology along with supportive health-care infrastructure can solve complicated health problems. Accessibility to the new screening tests, vaccines, and medications and cultural, economic, and political barriers to change must be overcome. Research must include more people from disadvantaged groups, which will require overcoming long-held concerns, some of them have had about medical science.

Biotechnology has been a significant force which has improved the quality of lives and has incalculably benefitted human beings. However, technology does have prospects of doing harm also due to unanticipated consequences. Each technology is subjected to ethical assessment and requires a different ethical approach. Obviously the changes are necessary as technology can have major impact on the world; thus, a righteous approach should be followed. There is uncertainty in predicting consequences, as this powerful technology has potential to manipulate humans themselves. Ethical concerns are even more important as the future of humanity can change which require careful attention and consideration. Therefore, wisdom is required to articulate our responsibilities toward environment, animals, nature, and ourselves for the coming future generations. We need to differentiate what is important technologically rather that what technology can do. For an imperative question, that is, whether this can be achieved, the research must answer “Why should it be achieved”? Who would it benefit?

Issues Related to Safety

• As the new GM crops are entering the market, the issue regarding their consumption, whether they are safe, without any risk, is one of the important concerns [ 2 ]. Though the results related to safety and usage are well reported (as compared to conventional crops), unknown fear from these products makes them non acceptable at many places [ 20 ].
• As insect- and pest-resistant varieties are being prepared and used as Bt genes in corn and cotton crops, there exists a risk of development of resistance insect population. Another important factor is that these resistant crops may harm other species like birds and butterfly.
• The development of more weeds may occur as cross-pollination might result in production of weeds with herbicide resistance which would be difficult to control.
• The gene transfers might cross the natural species boundary and affect biological diversity.
• The judgment of their usage would depend upon the clear understanding of risks associated with safety of these products in determining the impact of these on environment, other crops, and other animal species.

Future of the Technology

With the understanding of science, we should understand that genetic transfers have been occurring in animals and plant systems; thus, the risk of the biotechnology-derived products is similar as conventional crops [ 12 ].

The biotechnology products would be acceptable to many if they are beneficial and safe. People are willing to buy crops free of pesticides and insecticides. Nowadays people are also accepting crops grown without the usage of chemical fertilizers or pesticides, which are high in nutritive values.

The labeling of the product is also an ethical issue as some believe that labeling any product as biotechnology product might be taken by consumer as warning signs; however, others believe that labeling should be done as consumer has every right to know what he is consuming [ 9 ]. The products may be acceptable if consumers can accept the food derived from biotechnology weighing all pros and cons and, if the price is right, has more nutritive values, is good in taste, and is safe to consume [ 10 ].

Biotechnology is at the crossroads in terms of fears and thus public acceptance [ 15 ]. Surprisingly the therapeutic products are all accepted and find major place in biopharmaceutical industry, but food crops are still facing problems in worldwide acceptance. The future of the world food supply depends upon how well scientists, government, and the food industry are able to communicate with consumers about the benefits and safety of the technology [ 13 , 16 ]. Several major initiatives are under way to strengthen the regulatory process and to communicate more effectively with consumers by conducting educational programs [ 18 , 23 ].

Chapter End Summary

• The advantages of biotechnology are so broad that it is finding its place in virtually every industry. It has applications in areas as diverse as pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, textiles, aquaculture, forestry, chemicals, household products, environmental cleanup, food processing, and forensics to name a few.
• Biotechnology is enabling these industries to make new or better products, often with greater speed, efficiency, and flexibility.
• With the applications of recombinant DNA technology, more safer and therapeutic drugs are produced. These recombinant products do not elicit unwanted immunological response which is observed when the product is obtained from other live or dead sources. Many of these therapeutics are approved for human usage, and many of them are in the phase of development.
• Immunological and DNA-based techniques like PCR (polymerase chain reaction) are used for early diagnosis of disorders. PCR and NAAT with microarray can be utilized for the diagnosis of many diseases, and it can detect mutations in gene.
• The technology holds promise through stem cell research and gene therapy and holds applications in forensic medicine.
• The technique may be helpful in developing useful and beneficial plants. It overcomes the limitations of traditional plant breeding. The techniques of plant tissue culture, transgenics, and marker-assisted selections are largely used for selecting better yielding varieties and imparting quality traits in plants.
• Food industries. Production of single-cell protein, spirulina, enzymes, and solid-state fermentations
• Increase and improvement of agricultural production
• Production of therapeutic pharmaceuticals
• Production of vaccines and monoclonal antibodies
• Cultivation of virus for vaccine production

Multiple Choice Questions

• All of the above
• Vitamin D and calcium
• Growth hormone
• Tissue plasminogen activator
• Factor VIII
• Genetically modifying organism
• Production of therapeutics
• Production of better diagnosis
• Increase in yield of crops
• Improved crop varieties
• Lesser fertilizers and agrochemicals
• All of these
• It is resistant to it.
• The toxin is enclosed in vesicle.
• The toxin is present in inactive form.
• None of these.
• Gene therapy
• Replacement protein therapy
• Stem cell therapy
• The productivity would improve.
• The usage of chemical agent would be reduced.
• The environment and crop would be insecticide free.
• All of the above.
• Detoxifying waste material
• Burying waste material
• Burning waste material
• None of these

(1) In all the cells of our body, all the genes are active.

(2) In different cells of our body, different genes are active.

(3) Gene expression is spatially and temporally regulated.

• All 1, 2, and 3 are correct.
• 1 and 2 are correct.
• 1 and 3 are correct.
• 2 and 3 are correct.
• Inoculation with monoclonal antibody was able to prevent small pox.
• Inoculation with pus from sores due to cowpox could prevent small pox.
• Attenuated vaccine was able to prevent small pox.
• None of the above.
• 1. (c); 2. (a); 3. (c); 4. (d); 5. (d); 6. (d); 7. (c); 8. (a); 9. (d); 10. (a); 11. (d); 12. (b)

Review Questions

• Q1. What are cry proteins? What is their importance?
• Q2. Give some applications of biotechnology in agriculture.
• Q3. What is your opinion about labeling of biotechnology-based food product as rDNA technology derived product?
• Q4. What are applications of biotechnology in maintaining environment?
• Q5. What is medical biotechnology?
• Q6. What are the challenges faced by biotechnology industry?
• Q7. What do you think about GM crops?

Some Related Resources

• http://ificinfo.health.org/backgrnd/BKGR14.htm
• http://www.bio.org/aboutbio/guide1.html
• http://www.bio.org/aboutbio/guide2000/guide00_toc.html
• http://www.bio.org/aboutbio/guide3.html
• http://www.bio.org/aboutbio/guide4.html
• http://www.dec.ny.gov/energy/44157.html
• http://www.ers.usda.gov/whatsnew/issues/biotech/define.htm
• http://www.nal.usda.gov/bic/bio21
• http://www.nature.com/nbt/press_release/nbt1199.html
• www.angelfire.com/scary/intern/links.html
• www.bio-link.org/library.htm
• www.biospace.com
• www.dnai.org
• www.fiercebiotech.com
• www.iastate.edu
• www.icgeb.trieste.it
• www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Biotechnology Research Paper Topics

This collection of biotechnology research paper topics provides the list of 10 potential topics for research papers and overviews the history of biotechnology.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code, 1. animal breeding: genetic methods.

Modern animal breeding relies on scientific methods to control production of domesticated animals, both livestock and pets, which exhibit desired physical and behavioral traits. Genetic technology aids animal breeders to attain nutritional, medical, recreational, and fashion standards demanded by consumers for animal products including meat, milk, eggs, leather, wool, and pharmaceuticals. Animals are also genetically designed to meet labor and sporting requirements for speed and endurance, conformation and beauty ideals to win show competitions, and intelligence levels to perform obediently at tasks such as herding, hunting, and tracking. By the late twentieth century, genetics and mathematical models were appropriated to identify the potential of immature animals. DNA markers indicate how young animals will mature, saving breeders money by not investing in animals lacking genetic promise. Scientists also successfully transplanted sperm-producing stem cells with the goal of restoring fertility to barren breeding animals. At the National Animal Disease Center in Ames, Iowa, researchers created a gene-based test, which uses a cloned gene of the organism that causes Johne’s disease in cattle in order to detect that disease to avert epidemics. Researchers also began mapping the dog genome and developing molecular techniques to evaluate canine chromosomes in the Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL). Bioinformatics incorporates computers to analyze genetic material. Some tests were developed to diagnose many of several hundred genetic canine diseases including hip dysplasia and progressive retinal atrophy (PRA). A few breed organizations modified standards to discourage breeding of genetically flawed animals and promote heterozygosity.

2. Antibacterial Chemotherapy

In the early years of the twentieth century, the search for agents that would be effective against internal infections proceeded along two main routes. The first was a search for naturally occurring substances that were effective against microorganisms (antibiosis). The second was a search for chemicals that would have the same effect (chemotherapy). Despite the success of penicillin in the 1940s, the major early advances in the treatment of infection occurred not through antibiosis but through chemotherapy. The principle behind chemotherapy was that there was a relationship between chemical structure and pharmacological action. The founder of this concept was Paul Erhlich (1854–1915). An early success came in 1905 when atoxyl (an organic arsenic compound) was shown to destroy trypanosomes, the microbes that caused sleeping sickness. Unfortunately, atoxyl also damaged the optic nerve. Subsequently, Erhlich and his co-workers synthesized and tested hundreds of related arsenic compounds. Ehrlich was a co-recipient (with Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov) of the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1908 for his work on immunity. Success in discovering a range of effective antibacterial drugs had three important consequences: it brought a range of important diseases under control for the first time; it provided a tremendous stimulus to research workers and opened up new avenues of research; and in the resulting commercial optimism, it led to heavy postwar investment in the pharmaceutical industry. The therapeutic revolution had begun.

3. Artificial Insemination and in Vitro Fertilization

Artificial insemination (AI) involves the extraction and collection of semen together with techniques for depositing semen in the uterus in order to achieve successful fertilization and pregnancy. Throughout the twentieth century, the approach has offered animal breeders the advantage of being able to utilize the best available breeding stock and at the correct time within the female reproductive cycle, but without the limitations of having the animals in the same location. AI has been applied most intensively within the dairy and beef cattle industries and to a lesser extent horse breeding and numerous other domesticated species.

Many of the techniques involved in artificial insemination would lay the foundation for in vitro fertilization (IVF) in the latter half of the twentieth century. IVF refers to the group of technologies that allow fertilization to take place outside the body involving the retrieval of ova or eggs from the female and sperm from the male, which are then combined in artificial, or ‘‘test tube,’’ conditions leading to fertilization. The fertilized eggs then continue to develop for several days ‘‘in culture’’ until being transferred to the female recipient to continue developing within the uterus.

4. Biopolymers

Biopolymers are natural polymers, long-chained molecules (macromolecules) consisting mostly of a repeated composition of building blocks or monomers that are formed and utilized by living organisms. Each group of biopolymers is composed of different building blocks, for example chains of sugar molecules form starch (a polysaccharide), chains of amino acids form proteins and peptides, and chains of nucleic acid form DNA and RNA (polynucleotides). Biopolymers can form gels, fibers, coatings, and films depending on the specific polymer, and serve a variety of critical functions for cells and organisms. Proteins including collagens, keratins, silks, tubulins, and actin usually form structural composites or scaffolding, or protective materials in biological systems (e.g., spider silk). Polysaccharides function in molecular recognition at cell membrane surfaces, form capsular barrier layers around cells, act as emulsifiers and adhesives, and serve as skeletal or architectural materials in plants. In many cases these polymers occur in combination with proteins to form novel composite structures such as invertebrate exoskeletons or microbial cell walls, or with lignin in the case of plant cell walls.

The use of the word ‘‘cloning’’ is fraught with confusion and inconsistency, and it is important at the outset of this discussion to offer definitional clarification. For instance, in the 1997 article by Ian Wilmut and colleagues announcing the birth of the first cloned adult vertebrate (a ewe, Dolly the sheep) from somatic cell nuclear transfer, the word clone or cloning was never used, and yet the announcement raised considerable disquiet about the prospect of cloned human beings. In a desire to avoid potentially negative forms of language, many prefer to substitute ‘‘cell expansion techniques’’ or ‘‘therapeutic cloning’’ for cloning. Cloning has been known for centuries as a horticultural propagation method: for example, plants multiplied by grafting, budding, or cuttings do not differ genetically from the original plant. The term clone entered more common usage as a result of a speech in 1963 by J.B.S. Haldane based on his paper, ‘‘Biological possibilities for the human species of the next ten-thousand years.’’ Notwithstanding these notes of caution, we can refer to a number of processes as cloning. At the close of the twentieth century, such techniques had not yet progressed to the ability to bring a cloned human to full development; however, the ability to clone cells from an adult human has potential to treat diseases. International policymaking in the late 1990s sought to distinguish between the different end uses for somatic cell nuclear transfer resulting in the widespread adoption of the distinction between ‘‘reproductive’’ and ‘‘therapeutic’’ cloning. The function of the distinction has been to permit the use (in some countries) of the technique to generate potentially beneficial therapeutic applications from embryonic stem cell technology whilst prohibiting its use in human reproduction. In therapeutic applications, nuclear transfer from a patient’s cells into an enucleated ovum is used to create genetically identical embryos that would be grown in vitro but not be allowed to continue developing to become a human being. The resulting cloned embryos could be used as a source from which to produce stem cells that can then be induced to specialize into the specific type of tissue required by the patient (such as skin for burns victims, brain neuron cells for Parkinson’s disease sufferers, or pancreatic cells for diabetics). The rationale is that because the original nuclear material is derived from a patient’s adult tissue, the risks of rejection of such cells by the immune system are reduced.

6. Gene Therapy

In 1971, Australian Nobel laureate Sir F. MacFarlane Burnet thought that gene therapy (introducing genes into body tissue, usually to treat an inherited genetic disorder) looked more and more like a case of the emperor’s new clothes. Ethical issues aside, he believed that practical considerations forestalled possibilities for any beneficial gene strategy, then or probably ever. Bluntly, he wrote: ‘‘little further advance can be expected from laboratory science in the handling of ‘intrinsic’ types of disability and disease.’’ Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum, 1958 Nobel laureates, theorized in the 1960s that genes might be altered or replaced using viral vectors to treat human diseases. Stanfield Rogers, working from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in 1970, had tried but failed to cure argininemia (a genetic disorder of the urea cycle that causes neurological damage in the form of mental retardation, seizures, and eventually death) in two German girls using Swope papilloma virus. Martin Cline at the University of California in Los Angeles, made the second failed attempt a decade later. He tried to correct the bone marrow cells of two beta-thalassemia patients, one in Israel and the other in Italy. What Cline’s failure revealed, however, was that many researchers who condemned his trial as unethical were by then working toward similar goals and targeting different diseases with various delivery methods. While Burnet’s pessimism finally proved to be wrong, progress in gene therapy was much slower than antibiotic or anticancer chemotherapy developments over the same period of time. While gene therapy had limited success, it nevertheless remained an active area for research, particularly because the Human Genome Project, begun in 1990, had resulted in a ‘‘rough draft’’ of all human genes by 2001, and was completed in 2003. Gene mapping created the means for analyzing the expression patterns of hundreds of genes involved in biological pathways and for identifying single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that have diagnostic and therapeutic potential for treating specific diseases in individuals. In the future, gene therapies may prove effective at protecting patients from adverse drug reactions or changing the biochemical nature of a person’s disease. They may also target blood vessel formation in order to prevent heart disease or blindness due to macular degeneration or diabetic retinopathy. One of the oldest ideas for use of gene therapy is to produce anticancer vaccines. One method involves inserting a granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene into prostate tumor cells removed in surgery. The cells then are irradiated to prevent any further cancer and injected back into the same patient to initiate an immune response against any remaining metastases. Whether or not such developments become a major treatment modality, no one now believes, as MacFarland Burnet did in 1970, that gene therapy science has reached an end in its potential to advance health.

7. Genetic Engineering

The term ‘‘genetic engineering’’ describes molecular biology techniques that allow geneticists to analyze and manipulate deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). At the close of the twentieth century, genetic engineering promised to revolutionize many industries, including microbial biotechnology, agriculture, and medicine. It also sparked controversy over potential health and ecological hazards due to the unprecedented ability to bypass traditional biological reproduction.

For centuries, if not millennia, techniques have been employed to alter the genetic characteristics of animals and plants to enhance specifically desired traits. In a great many cases, breeds with which we are most familiar bear little resemblance to the wild varieties from which they are derived. Canine breeds, for instance, have been selectively tailored to changing esthetic tastes over many years, altering their appearance, behavior and temperament. Many of the species used in farming reflect long-term alterations to enhance meat, milk, and fleece yields. Likewise, in the case of agricultural varieties, hybridization and selective breeding have resulted in crops that are adapted to specific production conditions and regional demands. Genetic engineering differs from these traditional methods of plant and animal breeding in some very important respects. First, genes from one organism can be extracted and recombined with those of another (using recombinant DNA, or rDNA, technology) without either organism having to be of the same species. Second, removing the requirement for species reproductive compatibility, new genetic combinations can be produced in a much more highly accelerated way than before. Since the development of the first rDNA organism by Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer in 1973, a number of techniques have been found to produce highly novel products derived from transgenic plants and animals.

At the same time, there has been an ongoing and ferocious political debate over the environmental and health risks to humans of genetically altered species. The rise of genetic engineering may be characterized by developments during the last three decades of the twentieth century.

8. Genetic Screening and Testing

The menu of genetic screening and testing technologies now available in most developed countries increased rapidly in the closing years of the twentieth century. These technologies emerged within the context of rapidly changing social and legal contexts with regard to the medicalization of pregnancy and birth and the legalization of abortion. The earliest genetic screening tests detected inborn errors of metabolism and sex-linked disorders. Technological innovations in genomic mapping and DNA sequencing, together with an explosion in research on the genetic basis of disease which culminated in the Human Genome Project (HGP), led to a range of genetic screening and testing for diseases traditionally recognized as genetic in origin and for susceptibility to more common diseases such as certain types of familial cancer, cardiac conditions, and neurological disorders among others. Tests were also useful for forensic, or nonmedical, purposes. Genetic screening techniques are now available in conjunction with in vitro fertilization and other types of reproductive technologies, allowing the screening of fertilized embryos for certain genetic mutations before selection for implantation. At present selection is purely on disease grounds and selection for other traits (e.g., for eye or hair color, intelligence, height) cannot yet be done, though there are concerns for eugenics and ‘‘designer babies.’’ Screening is available for an increasing number of metabolic diseases through tandem mass spectrometry, which uses less blood per test, allows testing for many conditions simultaneously, and has a very low false-positive rate as compared to conventional Guthrie testing. Finally, genetic technologies are being used in the judicial domain for determination of paternity, often associated with child support claims, and for forensic purposes in cases where DNA material is available for testing.

9. Plant Breeding: Genetic Methods

The cultivation of plants is the world’s oldest biotechnology. We have continually tried to produce improved varieties while increasing yield, features to aid cultivation and harvesting, disease, and pest resistance, or crop qualities such as longer postharvest storage life and improved taste or nutritional value. Early changes resulted from random crosspollination, rudimentary grafting, or spontaneous genetic change. For centuries, man kept the seed from the plants with improved characteristics to plant the following season’s crop. The pioneering work of Gregor Mendel and his development of the basic laws of heredity showed for other first time that some of the processes of heredity could be altered by experimental means. The genetic analysis of bacterial (prokaryote) genes and techniques for analysis of the higher (eukaryotic) organisms such as plants developed in parallel streams, but the rediscovery of Mendel’s work in 1900 fueled a burst of activity on understanding the role of genes in inheritance. The knowledge that genes are linked along the chromosome thereby allowed mapping of genes (transduction analysis, conjugation analysis, and transformation analysis). The power of genetics to produce a desirable plant was established, and it was appreciated that controlled breeding (test crosses and back crosses) and careful analysis of the progeny could distinguish traits that were dominant or recessive, and establish pure breeding lines. Traditional horticultural techniques of artificial self-pollination and cross-pollination were also used to produce hybrids. In the 1930s the Russian Nikolai Vavilov recognized the value of genetic diversity in domesticated crop plants and their wild relatives to crop improvement, and collected seeds from the wild to study total genetic diversity and use these in breeding programs. The impact of scientific crop breeding was established by the ‘‘Green revolution’’ of the 1960s, when new wheat varieties with higher yields were developed by careful crop breeding. ‘‘Mutation breeding’’— inducing mutations by exposing seeds to x-rays or chemicals such as sodium azide, accelerated after World War II. It was also discovered that plant cells and tissues grown in tissue culture would mutate rapidly. In the 1970s, haploid breeding, which involves producing plants from two identical sets of chromosomes, was extensively used to create new cultivars. In the twenty-first century, haploid breeding could speed up plant breeding by shortening the breeding cycle.

10. Tissue Culturing

The technique of tissue or cell culture, which relates to the growth of tissue or cells within a laboratory setting, underlies a phenomenal proportion of biomedical research. Though it has roots in the late nineteenth century, when numerous scientists tried to grow samples in alien environments, cell culture is credited as truly beginning with the first concrete evidence of successful growth in vitro, demonstrated by Johns Hopkins University embryologist Ross Harrison in 1907. Harrison took sections of spinal cord from a frog embryo, placed them on a glass cover slip and bathed the tissue in a nutrient media. The results of the experiment were startling—for the first time scientists visualized actual nerve growth as it would happen in a living organism—and many other scientists across the U.S. and Europe took up culture techniques. Rather unwittingly, for he was merely trying to settle a professional dispute regarding the origin of nerve fibers, Harrison fashioned a research tool that has since been designated by many as the greatest advance in medical science since the invention of the microscope.

From the 1980s, cell culture has once again been brought to the forefront of cancer research in the isolation and identification of numerous cancer causing oncogenes. In addition, cell culturing continues to play a crucial role in fields such as cytology, embryology, radiology, and molecular genetics. In the future, its relevance to direct clinical treatment might be further increased by the growth in culture of stem cells and tissue replacement therapies that can be tailored for a particular individual. Indeed, as cell culture approaches its centenary, it appears that its importance to scientific, medical, and commercial research the world over will only increase in the twenty-first century.

History of Biotechnology

Biotechnology grew out of the technology of fermentation, which was called zymotechnology. This was different from the ancient craft of brewing because of its thought-out relationships to science. These were most famously conceptualized by the Prussian chemist Georg Ernst Stahl (1659–1734) in his 1697 treatise Zymotechnia Fundamentalis, in which he introduced the term zymotechnology. Carl Balling, long-serving professor in Prague, the world center of brewing, drew on the work of Stahl when he published his Bericht uber die Fortschritte der zymotechnische Wissenschaften und Gewerbe (Account of the Progress of the Zymotechnic Sciences and Arts) in the mid-nineteenth century. He used the idea of zymotechnics to compete with his German contemporary Justus Liebig for whom chemistry was the underpinning of all processes.

By the end of the nineteenth century, there were attempts to develop a new scientific study of fermentation. It was an aspect of the ‘‘second’’ Industrial Revolution during the period from 1870 to 1914. The emergence of the chemical industry is widely taken as emblematic of the formal research and development taking place at the time. The development of microbiological industries is another example. For the first time, Louis Pasteur’s germ theory made it possible to provide convincing explanations of brewing and other fermentation processes.

Pasteur had published on brewing in the wake of France’s humiliation in the Franco–Prussian war (1870–1871) to assert his country’s superiority in an industry traditionally associated with Germany. Yet the science and technology of fermentation had a wide range of applications including the manufacture of foods (cheese, yogurt, wine, vinegar, and tea), of commodities (tobacco and leather), and of chemicals (lactic acid, citric acid, and the enzyme takaminase). The concept of zymotechnology associated principally with the brewing of beer began to appear too limited to its principal exponents. At the time, Denmark was the world leader in creating high-value agricultural produce. Cooperative farms pioneered intensive pig fattening as well as the mass production of bacon, butter, and beer. It was here that the systems of science and technology were integrated and reintegrated, conceptualized and reconceptualized.

The Dane Emil Christian Hansen discovered that infection from wild yeasts was responsible for numerous failed brews. His contemporary Alfred Jørgensen, a Copenhagen consultant closely associated with the Tuborg brewery, published a widely used textbook on zymotechnology. Microorganisms and Fermentation first appeared in Danish 1889 and would be translated, reedited, and reissued for the next 60 years.

The scarcity of resources on both sides during World War I brought together science and technology, further development of zymotechnology, and formulation of the concept of biotechnology. Impending and then actual war accelerated the use of fermentation technologies to make strategic materials. In Britain a variant of a process to ferment starch to make butadiene for synthetic rubber production was adapted to make acetone needed in the manufacture of explosives. The process was technically important as the first industrial sterile fermentation and was strategically important for munitions supplies. The developer, chemist Chaim Weizmann, later became well known as the first president of Israel in 1949.

In Germany scarce oil-based lubricants were replaced by glycerol made by fermentation. Animal feed was derived from yeast grown with the aid of the new synthetic ammonia in another wartime development that inspired the coining of the word biotechnology. Hungary was the agricultural base of the Austro–Hungarian empire and aspired to Danish levels of efficiency. The economist Karl Ereky (1878–1952) planned to go further and build the largest industrial pig-processing factory. He envisioned a site that would fatten 50,000 swine at a time while railroad cars of sugar beet arrived and fat, hides, and meat departed. In this forerunner of the Soviet collective farm, peasants (in any case now falling prey to the temptations of urban society) would be completely superseded by the industrialization of the biological process in large factory-like animal processing units. Ereky went further in his ruminations over the meaning of his innovation. He suggested that it presaged an industrial revolution that would follow the transformation of chemical technology. In his book entitled Biotechnologie, he linked specific technical injunctions to wide-ranging philosophy. Ereky was neither isolated nor obscure. He had been trained in the mainstream of reflection on the meaning of the applied sciences in Hungary, which would be remarkably productive across the sciences. After World War I, Ereky served as Hungary’s minister of food in the short-lived right wing regime that succeeded the fall of the communist government of Bela Kun.

Nonetheless it was not through Ereky’s direct action that his ideas seem to have spread. Rather, his book was reviewed by the influential Paul Lindner, head of botany at the Institut fu¨ r Ga¨ rungsgewerbe in Berlin, who suggested that microorganisms could also be seen as biotechnological machines. This concept was already found in the production of yeast and in Weizmann’s work with strategic materials, which was widely publicized at that very time. It was with this meaning that the word ‘‘Biotechnologie’’ entered German dictionaries in the 1920s.

Biotechnology represented more than the manipulation of existing organisms. From the beginning it was concerned with their improvement as well, and this meant the enhancement of all living creatures. Most dramatically this would include humanity itself; more mundanely it would include plants and animals of agricultural importance. The enhancement of people was called eugenics by the Victorian polymath and cousin of Charles Darwin, Francis Galton. Two strains of eugenics emerged: negative eugenics associated with weeding out the weak and positive eugenics associated with enhancing strength. In the early twentieth century, many eugenics proponents believed that the weak could be made strong. People had after all progressed beyond their biological limits by means of technology.

Jean-Jacques Virey, a follower of the French naturalist Jean-Baptiste de Monet de Lamarck, had coined the term ‘‘biotechnie’’ in 1828 to describe man’s ability to make technology do the work of biology, but it was not till a century later that the term entered widespread use. The Scottish biologist and town planner Patrick Geddes made biotechnics popular in the English-speaking world. Geddes, too, sought to link life and technology. Before World War I he had characterized the technological evolution of mankind as a move from the paleotechnic era of coal and iron to the neotechnic era of chemicals, electricity, and steel. After the war, he detected a new era based on biology—the biotechnic era. Through his friend, writer Lewis Mumford, Geddes would have great influence. Mumford’s book Technics and Civilization, itself a founding volume of the modern historiography of technology, promoted his vision of the Geddesian evolution.

A younger generation of English experimental biologists with a special interest in genetics, including J. B. S. Haldane, Julian Huxley, and Lancelot Hogben, also promoted a concept of biotechnology in the period between the world wars. Because they wrote popular works, they were among Britain’s best-known scientists. Haldane wrote about biological invention in his far-seeing work Daedalus. Huxley looked forward to a blend of social and eugenics-based biological engineering. Hogben, following Geddes, was more interested in engineering plants through breeding. He tied the progressivism of biology to the advance of socialism.

The improvement of the human race, genetic manipulation of bacteria, and the development of fermentation technology were brought together by the development of penicillin during World War II. This drug was successfully extracted from the juice exuded by a strain of the Penicillium fungus. Although discovered by accident and then developed further for purely scientific reasons, the scarce and unstable ‘‘antibiotic’’ called penicillin was transformed during World War II into a powerful and widely used drug. Large networks of academic and government laboratories and pharmaceutical manufacturers in Britain and the U.S. were coordinated by agencies of the two governments. An unanticipated combination of genetics, biochemistry, chemistry, and chemical engineering skills had been required. When the natural mold was bombarded with high-frequency radiation, far more productive mutants were produced, and subsequently all the medicine was made using the product of these man-made cells. By the 1950s penicillin was cheap to produce and globally available.

The new technology of cultivating and processing large quantities of microorganisms led to calls for a new scientific discipline. Biochemical engineering was one term, and applied microbiology another. The Swedish biologist, Carl-Goran Heden, possibly influenced by German precedents, favored the term ‘‘Biotechnologi’’ and persuaded his friend Elmer Gaden to relabel his new journal Biotechnology and Biochemical Engineering. From 1962 major international conferences were held under the banner of the Global Impact of Applied Microbiology. During the 1960s food based on single-cell protein grown in fermenters on oil or glucose seemed, to visionary engineers and microbiologists and to major companies, to offer an immediate solution to world hunger. Tropical countries rich in biomass that could be used as raw material for fermentation were also the world’s poorest. Alcohol could be manufactured by fermenting such starch or sugar rich crops as sugar cane and corn. Brazil introduced a national program of replacing oil-based petrol with alcohol in the 1970s.

It was not, however, just the developing countries that hoped to benefit. The Soviet Union developed fermentation-based protein as a major source of animal feed through the 1980s. In the U.S. it seemed that oil from surplus corn would solve the problem of low farm prices aggravated by the country’s boycott of the USSR in1979, and the term ‘‘gasohol‘‘ came into currency. Above all, the decline of established industries made the discovery of a new wealth maker an urgent priority for Western governments. Policy makers in both Germany and Japan during the 1970s were driven by a sense of the inadequacy of the last generation of technologies. These were apparently maturing, and the succession was far from clear. Even if electronics or space travel offered routes to the bright industrial future, these fields seemed to be dominated by the U.S. Seeing incipient crisis, the Green, or environmental, movement promoted a technology that would depend on renewable resources and on low-energy processes that would produce biodegradable products, recycle waste, and address problems of the health and nutrition of the world.

In 1973 the German government, seeking a new and ‘‘greener’’ industrial policy, commissioned a report entitled Biotechnologie that identified ways in which biological processing was key to modern developments in technology. Even though the report was published at the time that recombinant DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) was becoming possible, it did not refer to this new technique and instead focused on the use and combination of existing technologies to make novel products.

Nonetheless the hitherto esoteric science of molecular biology was making considerable progress, although its practice in the early 1970s was rather distant from the world of industrial production. The phrase ‘‘genetic engineering’’ entered common parlance in the 1960s to describe human genetic modification. Medicine, however, put a premium on the use of proteins that were difficult to extract from people: insulin for diabetics and interferon for cancer sufferers. During the early 1970s what had been science fiction became fact as the use of DNA synthesis, restriction enzymes, and plasmids were integrated. In 1973 Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer successfully transferred a section of DNA from one E. coli bacterium to another. A few prophets such as Joshua Lederberg and Walter Gilbert argued that the new biological techniques of recombinant DNA might be ideal for making synthetic versions of expensive proteins such as insulin and interferon through their expression in bacterial cells. Small companies, such as Cetus and Genentech in California and Biogen in Cambridge, Massachusetts, were established to develop the techniques. In many cases discoveries made by small ‘‘boutique’’ companies were developed for the market by large, more established, pharmaceutical organizations.

Many governments were impressed by these advances in molecular genetics, which seemed to make biotechnology a potential counterpart to information technology in a third industrial revolution. These inspired hopes of industrial production of proteins identical to those produced in the human body that could be used to treat genetic diseases. There was also hope that industrially useful materials such as alcohol, plastics (biopolymers), or ready-colored fibers might be made in plants, and thus the attractions of a potentially new agricultural era might be as great as the implications for medicine. At a time of concern over low agricultural prices, such hopes were doubly welcome. Indeed, the agricultural benefits sometimes overshadowed the medical implications.

The mechanism for the transfer of enthusiasm from engineering fermenters to engineering genes was the New York Stock Exchange. At the end of the 1970s, new tax laws encouraged already adventurous U.S. investors to put money into small companies whose stock value might grow faster than their profits. The brokerage firm E. F. Hutton saw the potential for the new molecular biology companies such as Biogen and Cetus. Stock market interest in companies promising to make new biological entities was spurred by the 1980 decision of the U.S. Supreme Court to permit the patenting of a new organism. The patent was awarded to the Exxon researcher Ananda Chakrabarty for an organism that metabolized hydrocarbon waste. This event signaled the commercial potential of biotechnology to business and governments around the world. By the early 1980s there were widespread hopes that the protein interferon, made with some novel organism, would provide a cure for cancer. The development of monoclonal antibody technology that grew out of the work of Georges J. F. Kohler and Cesar Milstein in Cambridge (co-recipients with Niels K. Jerne of the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1986) seemed to offer new prospects for precise attacks on particular cells.

The fear of excessive regulatory controls encouraged business and scientific leaders to express optimistic projections about the potential of biotechnology. The early days of biotechnology were fired by hopes of medical products and high-value pharmaceuticals. Human insulin and interferon were early products, and a second generation included the anti-blood clotting agent tPA and the antianemia drug erythropoietin. Biotechnology was also used to help identify potential new drugs that might be made chemically, or synthetically.

At the same time agricultural products were also being developed. Three early products that each raised substantial problems were bacteria which inhibited the formation of frost on the leaves of strawberry plants (ice-minus bacteria), genetically modified plants including tomatoes and rapeseed, and the hormone bovine somatrotropin (BST) produced in genetically modified bacteria and administered to cattle in the U.S. to increase milk yields. By 1999 half the soy beans and one third of the corn grown in the U.S. were modified. Although the global spread of such products would arouse the best known concern at the end of the century, the use of the ice-minus bacteria— the first authorized release of a genetically engineered organism into the environment—had previously raised anxiety in the U.S. in the 1980s.

In 1997 Dolly the sheep was cloned from an adult mother in the Roslin agricultural research institute outside Edinburgh, Scotland. This work was inspired by the need to find a way of reproducing sheep engineered to express human proteins in their milk. However, the public interest was not so much in the cloning of sheep that had just been achieved as in the cloning of people, which had not. As in the Middle Ages when deformed creatures had been seen as monsters and portents of natural disasters, Dolly was similarly seen as monster and as a portent of human cloning.

The name Frankenstein, recalled from the story written by Mary Shelley at the beginning of the nineteenth century and from the movies of the 1930s, was once again familiar at the end of the twentieth century. Shelley had written in the shadow of Stahl’s theories. The continued appeal of this book embodies the continuity of the fears of artificial life and the anxiety over hubris. To this has been linked a more mundane suspicion of the blending of commerce and the exploitation of life. Discussion of biotechnology at the end of the twentieth century was therefore colored by questions of whose assurances of good intent and reassurance of safety could be trusted.

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Research Proposal Topics In Biotechnology

Biotechnology is a fascinating subject that blends biology and technology and provides a huge chance to develop new ideas. However, before pursuing a career in this field, a person needs to complete a number of studies and have a thorough knowledge of the matter. When we begin our career must we conduct study to discover some innovative innovations that could benefit people around the world. Biotechnology is one of a variety of sciences of life, including pharmacy. Students who are pursuing graduation, post-graduation or PhD must complete the research work and compose their thesis to earn the satisfaction in their education. When choosing a subject for biotechnology-related research it is important to choose one that is likely to inspire us. Based on our passion and personal preferences, the subject to study may differ.

What is Biotechnology?

In its most basic sense, biotechnology is the science of biology that enables technology Biotechnology harnesses the power of the biomolecular and cellular processes to create products and technologies that enhance our lives and the wellbeing of the planet. Biotechnology has been utilizing microorganisms' biological processes for over six thousand years to create useful food items like cheese and bread as well as to keep dairy products in good condition.

Modern biotechnology has created breakthrough products and technology to treat rare and debilitating illnesses help reduce our footprint on the environment and feed hungry people, consume less energy and use less and provide safer, more clean and productive industrial production processes.

Introduction

Biotechnology is credited with groundbreaking advancements in technological development and development of products to create sustainable and cleaner world. This is in large part due to biotechnology that we've made progress toward the creation of more efficient industrial manufacturing bases. Additionally, it assists in the creation of greener energy, feeding more hungry people and not leaving a large environmental footprint, and helping humanity fight rare and fatal diseases.

Our writing services for assignments within the field of biotechnology covers all kinds of subjects that are designed to test and validate the skills of students prior to awarding their certificates. We assist students to successfully complete their course in all kinds of biotechnology-related courses. This includes biological sciences for medical use (red) and eco-biotechnology (green) marine biotechnology (blue) and industrial biotechnology (white).

What do we hope to gain from all these Initiatives?

Our primary goal in preparing this list of the top 100 biotechnology assignment subjects is to aid students in deciding on effective time management techniques. We've witnessed a large amount of cases where when looking for online help with assignments with the topic, examining sources of information, and citing the correct order of reference students find themselves stuck at various points. In the majority of cases, students have difficulty even to get through their dilemma of choosing a topic. This is why we contribute in our effort to help make the process easier for students in biotech quickly and efficiently. Our students are able to save time and energy in order to help them make use of the time they are given to write the assignment with the most appropriate topics.

Let's look at some of the newest areas of biotechnology research and the related areas.

• Renewable Energy Technology Management Promoting Village
• Molasses is a molasses-based ingredient that can be used to produce and the treatment of its effluent
• Different ways to evapotranspirate
• Scattering Parameters of Circulator Bio-Technology
• Renewable Energy Technology Management Promoting Village.

Structural Biology of Infectious Diseases

A variety of studies are being conducted into the techniques used by pathogens in order to infect humans and other species and for designing strategies for countering the disease. The main areas that are available to study by biotech researchers include:

• inlA from Listeria monocytogenes when combined with E-cadherin from humans.
• InlC in Listeria monocytogenes that are multipart with human Tuba.
• Phospholipase PatA of Legionella pnemophila.
• The inactivation process of mammalian TLR2 by inhibiting antibody.
• There are many proteins that come originate from Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Plant Biotechnology

Another significant area for research in biotechnology for plants is to study the genetic causes of the plant's responses to scarcity and salinity, which have a significant impact on yields of the crop and food.

• Recognition and classification of genes that influence the responses of plants to drought and salinity.
• A component of small-signing molecules in plants' responses to salinity and drought.
• Genetic enhancement of plant sensitivity salinity and drought.

Pharmacogenetics

It's also a significant area for conducting research in biotechnology. One of the most important reasons for doing so could be the identification of various genetic factors that cause differences in drug effectiveness and susceptibility for adverse reactions. Some of the subjects which can be studied are,

• Pharmacogenomics of Drug Transporters
• Pharmacogenomics of Metformin's response to type II mellitus
• The pharmacogenomics behind anti-hypertensive medicines
• The Pharmacogenomics of anti-cancer drugs

Forensic DNA

A further area of research in biotechnology research is the study of the genetic diversity of humans for its applications in criminal justice. Some of the topics that could be studied include,

• Y-chromosome Forensic Kit, Development of commercial prototype.
• Genetic testing of Indels in African populations.
• The Y-chromosome genotyping process is used for African populations.
• Study of paternal and maternal ancestry of mixed communities in South Africa.
• The study of the local diversity in genetics using highly mutating Y-STRs and Indels.
• South African Innocence Project: The study of DNA extracted from historical crime scene.
• Nanotechnology is a new technology that can be applied to DNA genotyping.
• Nanotechnology methods to isolate DNA.

Food Biotechnology

It is possible to conduct research in order to create innovative methods and processes in the fields of food processing and water. The most fascinating topics include:

• A molecular-based technology that allows for the rapid identification and detection of foodborne pathogens in intricate food chains.
• The effects of conventional and modern processing techniques on the bacteria that are associated with Aspalathus lineriasis.
• DNA-based identification of species of animals that are present in meat products that are sold raw.
• The phage assay and PCR are used to detect and limit the spread of foodborne pathogens.
• Retention and elimination of pathogenic, heat-resistant and other microorganisms that are treated by UV-C.
• Analysis of an F1 generation of the cross Bon Rouge x Packham's Triumph by Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR/microsatellite).
• The identification of heavy metal tolerant and sensitive genotypes
• Identification of genes that are involved in tolerance to heavy metals
• The isolation of novel growth-promoting bacteria that can help crops cope with heavy metal stress . Identification of proteins that signal lipids to increase the tolerance of plants to stress from heavy metals

This topic includes high-resolution protein expression profiling for the investigation of proteome profiles. The following are a few of the most fascinating topics:

• The identification and profile of stress-responsive proteins that respond to abiotic stress in Arabidopsis Thalian and Sorghum bicolor.
• Analyzing sugar biosynthesis-related proteins in Sorghum bicolor, and study of their roles in drought stress tolerance
• Evaluation of the viability and long-term sustainability of Sweet Sorghum for bioethanol (and other by-products) production in South Africa
• In the direction of developing an environmentally sustainable, low-tech hypoallergenic latex Agroprocessing System designed specifically especially for South African small-holder farmers.

Bioinformatics

This is an additional aspect of biotechnology research. The current trend is to discover new methods to combat cancer. Bioinformatics may help identify proteins and genes as well as their role in the fight against cancer. Check out some of the areas that are suitable to study.

• Prediction of anticancer peptides with HIMMER and the the support vector machine.
• The identification and verification of innovative therapeutic antimicrobial peptides for Human Immunodeficiency Virus In the lab and molecular method.
• The identification of biomarkers that are associated with cancer of the ovary using an molecular and in-silico method.
• Biomarkers identified in breast cancer, as possible therapeutic and diagnostic agents with a combination of molecular and in-silico approaches.
• The identification of MiRNA's as biomarkers for screening of cancerous prostates in the early stages an in-silico and molecular method
• Identification of putatively identified the genes present in breast cancer tissues as biomarkers for early detection of lobular and ductal breast cancers.
• Examining the significance of Retinoblastoma Binding Protein 6 (RBBP6) in the regulation of the cancer-related protein Y-Box Binding Protein 1 (YB-1).
• Examining the role played by Retinoblastoma Binding Protein 6 (RBBP6) in the regulation of the cancer suppressor p53 through Mouse Double Minute 2 (MDM2).
• Structural analysis of the anti-oxidant properties of the 1-Cys peroxiredoxin Prx2 found in the plant that resurrects itself Xerophyta viscosa.

Nanotechnology

This is a fascinating aspect of biotechnology, which can be used to identify effective tools to address the most serious health issues.

• Evaluation of cancer-specific peptides to determine their applications for the detection of cancer.
• The development of a quantum dot-based detection systems for breast cancer.
• The creation of targeted Nano-constructs for in vivo imaging as well as the treatment of tumors.
• Novel quinone compounds are being tested as anti-cancer medicines.
• Embedelin is delivered to malignant cells in a specific manner.
• The anti-cancer activities of Tulbaghia Violacea extracts were studied biochemically .
• Novel organic compounds are screened for their anti-cancer potential.
• To treat HIV, nanotechnology-based therapeutic techniques are being developed.

Top 100 Biotechnology Research Proposal Topics to Consider in 2022

We've prepared a list of the top 100 most suggested dissertation topics, which were compiled by our experts in research. They've made sure to offer a an extensive list of topics that cover all aspects of the topic. We hope that this list will meet all of the requirements for assistance with your dissertation . Let us start with our list of subjects, one at a time each one

• Achieving effective control of renewable power technologies to help the village
• The production of ethanol through the aid of molasses and the treatment of its effluent
• Different approaches and aspects of Evapotranspiration
• Its scattering parameter is biotechnology circulator
• The inactivation of mammalian TLR2 via an inhibiting antibody
• The number of proteins produced by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Recognition and classification of genes that shape the responses of plants to drought and salinity.
• The small sign molecules that are involved in the response that plants have to the effects of salinity as well as drought
• Genetic improvement of the plant's sensitivity to drought and saltiness
• The pharmacogenomics of drug transporters
• The anti-cancer drugs' pharmacogenomics are based on pharmac
• The pharmacogenomics of antihypertensive medications
• Indels genotyping of African populations
• Genomics of the Y-chromosomes of African populations
• The profiling of DNA extracted from historical crime scenes Consider the implications of South African Innocence Project
• Nanotechnology-related methods for DNA isolation
• Nanotechnology applications in the context of DNA genotyping
• Recognizing the heavy metals that are tolerant with genotypes that are sensitive.
• Genetic characteristics that play a role within the procedure of gaining tolerance to metals
• The animal's DNA is authenticated by the species by the commercial production of raw meat products
• The use of molecular-based technology is in the sense of detection and identification of foodborne pathogens in complicated food systems
• Assessing the effectiveness of cancer-specific peptides that are suitable for efficient implementations in the area of diagnosis and treatment for cancer
• Quantum Dot-based detection system is being developed in relation to a positive breast cancer diagnosis
• It is targeted delivery of the embelin to cancerous cells
• Exploring the potential of novel quinone compounds as anti-cancer agents
• Treatment strategies for treating HIV in addition to the significance of nanotechnology the treatment of HIV.
• A review of the medicinal value the antioxidants found in nature.
• An in-depth examination of the structure of COVID spike proteins
• A review of the immune response to the stem therapy using cells
• CRISPR-Cas9 technology to aid in the process of editing the genome
• Tissue engineering and delivery of drugs through the application of Chitosan
• Evaluation of beneficial effects of cancer vaccines
• Use of PacBio sequencing in relation to genome assembly of model organisms
• Examining the connection between mRNA suppression and its effect on the growth of stem cells
• Biomimicry is a method of identifying of cancer cells
• The sub-classification and characterisation of the Yellow enzymes
• The process of producing food products that are hypoallergenic and fermented.
• The production of hypoallergenic milk
• The purification process for the thermostable phytase
• Bioconversion of the cellulose produce products that are significant for industry
• The investigation of the gut microbiota of the model organisms
• The use of fungal enzymes for the manufacture of chemical glue
• A look at those inhibitors to exocellulase as well as endocellulase
• Examine the value of microorganisms to aid in the recovery of gas from shale.
• Examine the thorough analysis of the method of natural decomposition
• Examine ways to recycle bio-wastes
• Improved bio-remediation in the case of oil spills
• The process of gold biosorption is accomplished with the aid of the cyanobacterium
• A healthy equilibrium between the biotic and the abiotic elements by using biotechnological devices
• The measurement of the mercury level in fish by means of markers
• Exploring the biotechnological capabilities from Jellyfish related microbiomes Jellyfish related microbiome
• What is the role of marine fungi to aid in attempts to break down plastics and polymers?
• Examine the biotechnological possibilities that can be extracted of dinoflagellates
• Removing endosulfan residues using the use of biotechnology the agriculture sector
• The creation of the ELISA method for the detection of crop virus
• Enhancing the quality of drinking water by the aid of the E.coli consortium
• The characterisation of E.coli is its isolation from the feces of Zoo animals
• Enhancing the resistance of crops to the attack of insects
• The reduction of the expenditure on agriculture by using efficient bio-tools
• Are there the most efficient ways to stop erosion of soils using the help of biotechnology-based tools?
• What can biotechnology do to assist in increasing the levels of vitamin content in GM food items?
• Enhancing the distribution of pesticides by using biotechnology
• Comparing the biofortification of folate in various types of corpses
• Examine the photovoltaic-based generation of ocean-based crop
• What is the best way to use nanotechnology will improve the efficiency of the agriculture sector?
• Analyzing the mechanisms that govern resistance to water stresses in models of plants
• Production and testing of human immune boosters within the test organisms
• Comparing genomic analysis to the usefulness of tools intended for bioinformatics
• The Arabinogalactan protein sequence and its value in the field of computational methods
• Analyzing and interpreting gut microbiota from model organisms
• Different methods of purification of proteins A comparative analysis
• The diagnosis of microbes and their function in micro-arrays of oligonucleotide oligonu
• The use of diverse techniques within the biomedical research field that includes micro-arrays technology
• The use of microbial community to produce the greenhouse effect
• Evaluation of the computational properties of various proteins that are derived from the marine microbiota
• E.coli gene mapping through the help of different tools for microbial research
• Intensifying the strains of Cyanobacterium the aid of gene sequencing
• Assessment and description by computation of crystallized proteins that are found in the natural world.
• MTERF protein and the use of it to end the process of transcription that occurs in mitochondrial DNA inside algae
• Reverse column chromatography in phase and its use in the separation of proteins
• The study of the various proteins that are found within Mycobacterium leprae.
• A review of the methods that are ideal to ensure the success of cloning RNA
• Examine the most common mistakes of biotechnology in conserving the ecology and natural environment.
• Is there a method to ensure that the medicinal plants are free of insects? Discuss
• What are the dangers caused by pest resistant animals on birds and human beings?
• What are the many areas of biotechnology that remain unexplored in terms research?
• What's the future of biotechnology in the medical field?
• Recombinant DNA technology to develop of new medical treatments
• What is the reason for the type of bacteria that is used to make vaccines with the aid of biotechnology?
• How can biotechnology aid in the development of new medicines that are resistant to the mutations of viruses and bacteria?
• Is there a long-term treatment for cancer that is available in the near term? Biotechnology could play an essential role in this?
• What is the reason it is so important that students remember the DNA codes in biotechnology?
• How can we create hybrid seeds with assistance of biotechnology?
• How can one create resistant plants to pests and what are the benefits of these seeds in final yields in agriculture?
• Examine bio-magnification and its effects on the ecology
• What are the causes to the reasons ecologists do not approve the use of pest-resistant seed, even though they are in application in agriculture?
• How has biotechnology influenced the lives of farmers in developing countries?
• Biotechnology can be used to boost the yield of plant species?
• Examine the role played by biotechnology to increase the production of the seasonal crops
• Are there any adverse side effects associated with pharmaceutical drugs when they are manufactured with biotechnological techniques? Let the issue with real-world examples

We attempted to cover the essential topics needed for research work. Other topics are available that could be picked based on our interests, the facilities available and resources available for the research, as well as resources and time limits.

We have reached the end of this list. We feel it was beneficial in satisfying the selection criteria. Furthermore, the inclusion of biotechnology-related assignment themes was done in such a manner that they may help us with the requirements of assignment writing kinds and forms. The themes listed above can meet our demands for topic selection linked to aid with case studies and essay assistance, research paper writing help , or thesis writing help .

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Hot Research Topics in Biotech in 2022

The past few years years have seen leaps and strides of innovation as scientists have worked to develop and produce new mRNA vaccinations and made major developments in biotech research. During this time, they’ve also faced challenges. Ongoing supply chain disruptions , the Great Resignation, and the pandemic have impacted biotech labs and researchers greatly, forcing lab managers and PIs to get creative with lab supply purchasing, experiment planning, and the use of technology in order to maintain their research schedules.

“The pace of innovation specific to COVID to be able to develop both medicines related to antibodies as well as vaccines is just staggering. Those of us in the industry are in awe of the innovation we’re witnessing on a daily basis. We’ve been behind in the use of automation, software, and AI that can make our industry more efficient — that’s where we’re headed,” says Michelle Dipp, Cofounder and Managing Partner, Biospring Partners on the This is ZAGENO podcast .

At the start of 2022, current biotech research projects are exploring advancements in medicine, vaccines, the human body and treatment of disease, bacteria and immunology, and viruses like the Coronavirus that affected the globe in ways we couldn’t have anticipated.

Biotech Research Processes are Changing

As Michelle explained, the research that’s happening is changing, and so is the way that scientists conduct it. Influenced by both B2C ecommerce and the growing dependence on remote and cloud-based working, biotech labs are undergoing digital transformations . This means more software, AI, and automation in the lab, along with modern digital procurement strategies and integrated systems for lab operations.

Here are some of the top biotech research trends and recent biotech research papers that are changing the world of science and leading to innovation in life sciences.

Top 6 Biotech Research Topics for 2022

Science journals have never been more popular as they’ve been in the past several years. Resonating with the general public, biotech research papers have found their way into the hands and social media streams of interested citizens and scientists alike.

As we look to the most credible, peer-reviewed sources for recent innovations like PubMed , the Journal of Biotechnology , BioTech , and Biotechnology Journal , the trending themes in biotech research are in direct response to COVID-19, like vaccine development, respiratory virus research, and RNA-based pharmaceuticals. Additionally, there have been major advances in metabolism and the human microbiome, as well as further exploration in microvesicles.

All of the research happening has the potential to change millions of people’s quality of life, prevent and treat illnesses that currently have high mortality rates, and change healthcare around the world.

Here's what's happening in biotech research.

1. Vaccine Development mRNA vaccine development has been in the works since 1989 and was accelerated in recent years to combat the global COVID-19 pandemic. Researchers like Maruggi, Zhang, Li, Ulmer, Yu and their team believe that mRNA vaccines could change infectious disease control as we know it as a prophylactic means of disease prevention for diseases like HIV, Zika, and the flu.

Recent developments in mRNA research from Pardi, Hogan, and Weissman in 2020 explored the ways that mRNA vaccines can combat certain cancers and infectious pathogens that were previously resistant to existing vaccine options.

With new access to data from the 3.4 billion+ COVID-19 mRNA vaccines that have been administered worldwide, researchers have been able to determine the risks associated with mRNA vaccines , which brings forward new topics for research in the medical and pharmaceutical sides of the biotech industry. mRNA vaccines are faster to develop and can help prevent more diseases than traditional vaccine methods.

2. Respiratory Viruses Acute respiratory diseases (ARDs) like those caused by the SARS-CoV pathogen or the influenza virus lead to morbidity and mortality, and can lead to pneumonia, which can be fatal for immunocompromised or elderly patients — they represent a huge impact to human society.

Identifying the cause of ARDs and identifying viral infections from COVID-19 has become an issue of public health and safety, leading research groups like Zhang, Wang, and team to seek out more accurate and faster ways to detect respiratory viruses .

Understanding these respiratory virus mechanisms can help lead to better protection, prevention, and treatments for respiratory viruses, which have a mortality rate of up to 78% .

3. RNA-based Therapeutics RNA-based treatments like modified non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and others have been developed and studied by teams like Feng, Patil, et al (2021) to treat various diseases and conditions, including pancreatic cancer, acute renal failure, acute kidney injuries, diabetic macular edema, and advanced solid tumors.

In 2022, we expect to see further development of RNA-based therapeutics, like CAR T cells and other gene/cell therapeutics, therapeutic antibodies, and small molecular drugs to treat even more diseases and for prophylactic purposes as well.

4. Microvesicles + Extracellular Vesicles Microvesicles are coming to light due to their involvement in transporting mRNA, miRNA, and proteins — but how else might they support the human body? There are unknown functions of microvesicles and other extracellular vesicles that have yet to be discovered.

In 2020, Ratajczak and Ratajczak found that understanding microvesicles (or exosomes, microparticles) could mean understanding cell-to-cell communication , and their research showed that extracellular vesicles could transfer mRNA and proteins and modify stem cells ex vivo. This year, we look forward to seeing more research on what these tiny cell parts can do.

5. Metabolism in Cancers + Other Diseases Metabolism is the process of energy conversion in organisms and it represents the chemical reactions that sustain life. Recent research on metabolism in cancers and in immune cells has uncovered new ways to approach treatment and prevention of certain illnesses.

Take a look at Matsushita, Nakagawa, and Koike’s (2021) research on lipid metabolism in oncology and how recent advances in lipidomics technology and mass spectrometry have opened the door for new analysis of lipid profiles of certain cancers.

6. The Human Microbiome The human microbiome hosts bacteria, microorganisms, and other naturally-occurring flora that can help us and harm us. Diet, stress, drugs, and other factors shape the microbiome, leading to inflammation and an immune response of cytokines. Recent machine learning and statistical analyses of microbiome data , like that of Indias, Lahti, Nedyalkova, and team (2021) are getting smarter and smarter by removing variables and providing ways to test new hypotheses using statistical modeling.

With a deeper understanding of the microbiome, researchers like David Sinclair have shown that lifestyle changes can actually help people live healthier lives for longer . Sinclair’s lab is at the forefront of aging research and its impact on healthcare — and it’s all rooted in biotechnology and life science experiments.

Recent updates to ICD-11 and its classification of aging as a disease have led to debate, with Sinclair and colleagues advocating for the ongoing paradigm shift that biological age and chronological age are not synonymous. The implications for longevity and aging research from a funding perspective will be impacted by WHO and NIH decisions, and we anticipate seeing more biotech research on topics like epigenetics, metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction, reproduction, and stem cell developments in the coming years.

Biotech research can change humankind, and lead to a better quality of life for generations to come. Subscribe to the ZAGENO blog to keep up with the latest topics in biotech and life sciences research and find the tech that supports biotech lab managers and PIs in their ongoing work.

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5 Methods for Conducting Agile Biotech Research

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Top 100 Biotechnology Dissertation Topics for the Year 2021

• September 14, 2021 September 14, 2021

Biotechnology is one of the major streams of science where students request for our reliable and time-tested assignment help from prestigious universities, colleges, and institutes around the globe. The subject helps us understand how we can effectively utilise biological systems, living organisms, or their parts to develop or create different types of products.

GET HELP INSTANTLY Place your order to get best assignment help

(since 2006)

Apart from genetics, bioengineering and research, the subject offers decent career options in industrial sectors like textiles, food, agriculture, pharmaceutical and animal husbandry.

Introduction

Modern biotechnology has been credited with breakthrough innovations in the field of product development and technologies to help us develop a cleaner and more sustainable world. It is primarily because of biotechnology; we have progressed towards the development of more efficient industrial manufacturing base. Besides, it is helping in the production of cleaner energy, feed more hungry people without leaving much of our environmental footprint, and help mankind combat rare and debilitating diseases.

Our assignment writing services in the field of biotechnology cover all types of subject topics that test and vindicate the skill sets of the students before awarding them with their respective degrees. We help students successfully pass their syllabus in all forms of biotechnology courses. These include medical biotechnology (red), environmental biotechnology (green), marine biotechnology (blue) and industrial biotechnology (white).

What are We Expecting to Gain from All these Efforts?

Our sole objective of preparing this marathon list of top 100 biotechnology assignment topics is to help students decide upon effective time management skills. We have seen an immense numbers of cases where while exploring online assignment help related to topic selection, exploration of information sources, and citing them in correct reference order, students get stuck at different stages. Amongst them, most of the students find it difficult even to pass their topic selection dilemma. That is where we contribute to our efforts to make things easy for the biotech students right in one go. We help our students save time and energy, so that they can prudently use the assigned time to prepare the content of their assignment around the best topics.

Are you keen to master your dissertation writing skills in just a couple of weeks? Read the below amazing article and do not miss the golden opportunity to learn from the experts absolutely for free!

Must read: wish to master dissertation skills in 2 weeks learn from the experts here, top 100 biotechnology dissertation topics trending in the year 2021.

We have prepared the list of top 100 most recommended dissertation topics prepared by our research experts. They have ensured to provide a comprehensive list of topics that are covering all the dimensions of the subject. We fully hope that the list would cover all your dissertation help requirements. So, let us begin with the prepared list of topics one by one –

• Effective management of renewable energy technology to promote a village
• The production of ethanol with the help of molasses as well as its effluent treatment
• Different methods and aspects of evapotranspiration
• The scattering parameters of the circulator biotechnology
• The inactivation of the mammalian TLR2 through an inhibiting antibody
• Number of proteins through Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• The recognition and classification of the genes shaping the plant responses to salinity and drought
• The segment of small signing molecules in the responses of plants to salinity and drought
• Genetic improvement of the plant lenience to salinity and drought
• Pharmacogenomics of the drug transporters
• Pharmacogenomics of the anti-cancer drugs
• Pharmacogenomics of the anti-hypertensive drugs
• Indels genotyping of the African populations
• Y-chromosome genotyping of the African populations
• Profiling of the DNA isolated from the historical crime scenes: Discuss in terms of South African Innocence Project
• Nanotechnology methods in terms of DNA isolation
• Nanotechnology applications in terms of DNA genotyping
• Recognizing heavy metal tolerant along with sensitive genotypes
• Features of genes that participate in the process of heavy metal tolerance
• DNA authentication of the animal species through raw meat products reared commercially
• Molecular based technology in terms of rapid identification and detection of the food borne pathogens with respect to complex food systems
• Making an assessment of cancer specific peptides for successful implementations in the field of cancer diagnosis
• Quantum dot-based detection system development with respect to successful breast cancer diagnosis
• Targeted delivery of the embelin to the cancer cells
• Accessing the role of novel quinone compounds to perform as anti-cancer agents
• Therapeutic approaches to the treatment of HIV and the role of nanotechnology in it
• An assessment of the medicinal value of the natural antioxidants
• An indepth study of the structure of the COVID spike proteins
• An assessment of the immune response of the stem cell therapy
• The use of CRISPR-Cas9 technology for the purpose of genome editing
• Tissue engineering and the drug delivery with the application of Chitosan
• An assessment of therapeutic effects of the cancer vaccines
• Utilization of PacBio sequencing with respect to genome assembly of the model organisms
• Studying the relationship between the mRNA suppression and its impact on the expansion of the stem cell
• Utilizing biomimicry for the identification of the tumor cells
• The sub-classification and characterization of the Yellow enzymes
• The production of the hypoallergenic fermented foods
• The production of the hypoallergenic milk
• The purification process of the thermostable phytase
• Bioconversion of the cellulose to successfully yield the products that are industrially significant
• The examination of the gut microbiota in the model organisms
• The utilization of the fungal enzymes in the production of chemical glue
• An examination of the inhibitors of exocellulase and endocellulase
• Discuss the utility of microorganisms in the recovery of shale gas
• Discuss the in-depth study of the procedure of natural decomposition
• Discuss the process of recycling the bio-wastes
• Enhanced bio-remediation for the cases of oil spills
• The process of gold biosorption with the help of cyanobacterium
• Maintaining a healthy balance between the biotic and the abiotic factors with the help of biotechnological tools
• Labeling the level of mercury in fish with the help of markers
• Exploring out the biotechnological potential of the Jellyfish related microbiome
• What is the potential of marine fungi in the efforts to degrade polymers and plastics?
• Discuss the biotechnological potential that one can fetch out of dinoflagellates
• Tracing out endosulfan residues with the application of biotechnology in the field of agricultural products
• The development of the ELISA technique for the identification of crop viruses
• Boosting the quality of drinking water with the help of E.coli consortium
• The characterization of E.coli isolation from the feces of the zoo animals
• Improving the resistance of the crops against the invasion of the insects
• Reducing the spending on agriculture with the help of effective bio-tools
• What are the most effective steps to reduce soil erosion with the utility of tools derived from biotechnology?
• How biotechnology can help in the improvement the levels of vitamin in GM foods?
• Improving the delivery of pesticide with the help of biotechnology
• Comparing folate biofortification in different kinds of corps
• Discuss the photovoltaic-based production of the ocean crops
• How the application of nanotechnology to improve the activities of the agricultural sector?
• Examining the mechanisms of water stress tolerance in the model plants
• Testing and production of the human immune boosters in the experimental organisms
• Comparing genomic analysis with the utility of tools meant for bioinformatics
• Arabinogalactan protein sequencing and its utility in computational methods
• Evaluating and interpreting gut microbiota in the model organisms
• Different techniques of protein purification: A comparative analysis
• Diagnosing microbes and their role in o ligonucleotide micro-arrays
• The application of different techniques in the field of biomedical research comprising micro-arrays technology
• The application of microbial consortium in producing the greenhouse effect
• Computational assessment of various proteins accessed from marine microbiota
• E.coli gene mapping with the application of various microbial tools
• Enhancing the strains of cyanobacterium with the help of gene sequencing
• Computational assessment and description of the crystallized proteins present in nature
• mTERF protein and its application to terminate the transcription of mitochondrial DNA in algae
• Reverse phase column chromatography and its application in separating proteins
• The study of various proteins present within Mycobacterium leprae
• An assessment of the strategies that are ideally suitable for successful cloning of RNA
• Discuss the common failures of biotechnology in saving the ecology and the environment
• Is there a way to make the medicinal plants free of pests? Discuss
• What are the harms imposed by pest resistant corps on humans and birds?
• What are the diverse fields of biotechnology that still remain unexplored in terms of research?
• What is the future of biotechnology in the field of medicine?
• The application of recombinant DNA technology in the invention of new forms of medicine
• Why is the strain of bacteria used to create vaccine with the help of biotechnology?
• How biotechnology can help in the creation of medicines that are more resistant towards the mutating forms of viruses and bacteria?
• Can there be a permanent cure for cancer in the future? How biotechnology can play a decisive role in it?
• Why it is critical for the students to effectively remember the DNA coding in the field of biotechnology?
• How one can make hybrid seeds with the help from biotechnology?
• How one can generate pest resistant seeds and what are their benefits in the end yielding in agriculture?
• Discuss bio-magnification and its impact on ecology
• What are the reasons due to which the ecologists disapprove the usage of pest resistant seeds, despite their usage in the field of agriculture?
• How biotechnology positively influenced the lives of farmers in the developing economies?
• How biotechnology functions to increase in yield of the crop plants?
• Discuss the role of biotechnology in boosting the output of seasonal crops
• Are there adverse effects of medicines in pharmacology when manufactured with biotechnological principles? Throw some light on the question with real-life cases

Now with that, we have reached the end of this list and fully hope that it would have served the purpose of topic selection requirements. Besides, the inclusion of biotechnology assignment topics has been done in such a manner that it can help us out with our needs related to different other assignment writing formats as well. For instance, all our topic selection requirements related to case study help , essay help , research paper writing help or thesis help can also be met with the topics in the above-mentioned list.

Are you facing the heat of topic selection dilemma in your biology assignment homework? Check the below link to rely upon the topic list that the most respected experts recommend.

Must read: top 100 biology dissertation topics for the year 2021.

Biotechnology is a subject that is meant to offer a plethora of research prospects. A successful completion of course in one or more streams of biotechnology will ensure job placement opportunities in different research and development companies dedicated to the field. The objective of recommending this list is to help you make the right topic selection in less amount of time and dedicate more time to assignment research, and adequate content writing. After all, going an extra mile in terms of efforts will ensure that the final submission is good enough to help you earn the grades that can help you beat the competition.

If you have liked our recommended list of 100 biotechnology topics, then we invite you to reach our paid assignment help to unburden all the biotech assignment worries onto the shoulders of the most trusted professional assignment writers. Reach biotechnology assignment help to learn how the most trusted online homework help agency has helped thousands of biotechnology students to skyrocket to better career opportunities in the last 15 years. It is the time to step-in and reap the benefits from what the best in business has to offer!

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Animal biotechnology articles from across Nature Portfolio

Animal biotechnology is a branch of biotechnology in which molecular biology techniques are used to genetically engineer (i.e. modify the genome of) animals in order to improve their suitability for pharmaceutical, agricultural or industrial applications. Animal biotechnology has been used to produce genetically modified animals that synthesize therapeutic proteins, have improved growth rates or are resistant to disease.

Related Subjects

• Genetic engineering

Latest Research and Reviews

Fetal bone engraftment reconstitutes the immune system in pigs with severe combined immunodeficiency

Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) pigs do not live long enough to reproduce naturally. Monarch et al. show that reconstituting the immune system of SCID piglets with fetal bone allografts extends their lifespan, allowing them to reach puberty.

• Kaylynn Monarch
• Junchul Yoon

Population suppression by release of insects carrying a dominant sterile homing gene drive targeting doublesex in Drosophila

CRISPR homing gene drives can suppress pest populations by targeting female fertility genes, converting wild-type alleles into drive alleles in the germline of drive heterozygotes. Here the authors demonstrate a genetic pest suppression system based on dominant female-sterile doublesex alleles and show that releases of transgenic males eliminated Drosophila cage populations, with modelling showing improved performance compared to similar systems.

• Weizhe Chen
• Jialiang Guo
• Jackson Champer

PGC-based cryobanking, regeneration through germline chimera mating, and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated TYRP1 modification in indigenous Chinese chickens

The combination of efficient PGC culture, practical cryopreservation, regeneration from recipient chickens, and CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing to create knockout chickens for conserving and genetically improving rare native breeds.

• Keiji Kinoshita
• Kumiko Tanabe
• Hong-Jiang Wei

Expanding the CRISPR base editing toolbox in Drosophila melanogaster

Testing three types of cytosine base editors in fruit flies demonstrates the potential usage of these base editors in genetic biocontrol strategies, with the rAPO-1 achieving high editing efficiency (~99%) with no detectable INDEL mutations.

• Michael Clark
• Christina Nguyen
• Víctor López Del Amo

Production of a heterozygous exon skipping model of common marmosets using gene-editing technology

This study shows that using gene-editing technology in oocytes using Platinum TALEN is an effective method for producing genetically modified marmosets by exon skipping.

• Hiroki Sasaguri
• Erika Sasaki

Enhancing early identification of high-fertile cattle females using infrared blood serum spectra and machine learning

• Willian Reis
• Thiago Franca
• Cicero Cena

News and Comment

An innovative, sustainable, no-kill sea urchin aquaculture method

We present a sea urchin aquaculture method called raking. Unlike traditional methods in which the entire gonad is the final product, thereby requiring sea urchin killing, eggs are the final product in raking. As killing of sea urchins is not necessary, several production cycles are possible with this method, enabling sustainable echinoculture.

Beef paddies

An article in Matter uses rice grains as scaffolds for cultivated beef cells to produce an innovative beef-infused rice.

• Ariane Vartanian

How biofabrication can accelerate cultured meat’s path to market

The production of conventional meat contributes to climate change and uses up around 70% of available arable land. Cultured meat is emerging as a potential solution, but presently can be only produced at the pilot scale. Biofabrication technologies developed for biomedical applications could be leveraged to introduce automation and standardization in the production of cultured meat, accelerating its path to market.

• Simon Heine
• Tilman Ahlfeld
• Petra J. Kluger

Sir Ian Wilmut 1944–2023

• Alan Trounson
• Jose Cibelli

Rapid-response manufacturing of adenovirus-vectored vaccines

• Carina C. D. Joe
• Nitin Chopra
• Alexander D. Douglas

Evolutionary divergence impact on de-extinction

Lin et al. explore the impact of evolutionary divergence on de-extinction efforts that use genome editing using the extinct Christmas Island rat.

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